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Atherton G, Hathaway R, Visuri I, Cross L. A critical hit: Dungeons and Dragons as a buff for autistic people. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2024:13623613241275260. [PMID: 39166536 DOI: 10.1177/13623613241275260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
LAY ABSTRACT Tabletop role-playing games (TTRPGs) are popular hobbies that may offer specific social benefits for autistic people. This study investigated the ability of TTRPGs to provide a safe space where autistic adults could develop relationships with other autistic adults while engaging in character and world-building. A group of eight autistic adults were split into two groups and taken through a short-form online Dungeons and Dragons campaign over 6 weeks run by one of the researchers. The researcher then led a series of individual semi-structured interviews discussing how participants felt interacting in and out of the TTRPG. Several key themes were identified as important aspects of why autistic people could benefit from such an environment. Analysis showed that while real-life interactions could be challenging, in TTRPG play, they felt they experienced significantly fewer struggles. Results suggested that TTRPGs can provide a safe space environment where autistic adults can engage in productive social interactions with like-minded individuals. It also may allow autistic participants to experience 'bleed' or the ability to take on a new character that changes the way they feel about themselves outside of the game. Future directions for this work are discussed.
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Cross L, Belshaw F, Piovesan A, Atherton G. Game Changer: Exploring the Role of Board Games in the Lives of Autistic People. J Autism Dev Disord 2024:10.1007/s10803-024-06408-0. [PMID: 38967700 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-024-06408-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
This mixed methods paper reports findings from three studies examining the overlap between autism and hobbyist board gaming. The first was a quantitative survey of over 1600 board gamers, showing that autistic individuals are overrepresented in this hobby compared to the general population and that autistic traits measured by the AQ are significantly elevated amongst board gamers. Study 1 also assessed gamers' motivations and preferences and reported key differences as well as similarities between autistic and non-autistic gamers. The second was a qualitative study that reported the results of 13 interviews with autistic individuals who are hobbyist board gamers. Using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), four key themes were uncovered, including a preference for systemising, escapism and passions, the social lubrication effect of games and difficulties with deception. In the third, 28 autistic individuals were introduced to board games in groups of 5-10 over an afternoon. Subsequent focus groups were then analysed using IPA. This analysis uncovered themes around how board games are challenging but encouraged growth and how they were an alternative vehicle for forging social relationships. Through this paper, we discuss how and why board games may be a popular hobby amongst the autistic population, and its potential utility for improving autistic wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Cross
- Department of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Francesca Belshaw
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Liverpool, L39 4QP, UK
| | - Andrea Piovesan
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Liverpool, L39 4QP, UK.
| | - Gray Atherton
- Department of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
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Pritchard-Rowe E, de Lemos C, Howard K, Gibson J. Autistic adults' perspectives and experiences of diagnostic assessments that include play across the lifespan. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2024:13623613241257601. [PMID: 38864307 DOI: 10.1177/13623613241257601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
LAY ABSTRACT Play is often included in autism diagnostic assessments. These assessments tend to focus on negatives and how people who are not autistic interpret observable behaviours. It is important to take a neurodiversity-affirmative assessment approach. This involves focusing on what autistic people say and looking at strengths and needs. We wanted to find out how autistic adults experience diagnostic assessments that include play. We asked autistic and non-autistic people to help us design our study and interview questions. We then interviewed 22 autistic adults to find out what they think about the use of play in assessments. We used a qualitative method called interpretative phenomenological analysis to analyse the data. Autistic adults told us about the different ways play was included in their diagnostic assessments. For example, some completed a diagnostic tool called the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Autistic adults also talked about the importance of considering how autistic people are different to each other. For example, we found that play may not be useful for assessing women or girls who mask. This suggests that professionals should adopt a personalised approach to diagnostic assessments that use play catering to each person's needs. Our findings also suggested that professionals should assess strengths and differences as well as needs.
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Pritchard-Rowe E, de Lemos C, Howard K, Gibson J. Diversity in Autistic Play: Autistic Adults' Experiences. AUTISM IN ADULTHOOD 2024; 6:218-228. [PMID: 39139511 PMCID: PMC11317800 DOI: 10.1089/aut.2023.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Background Play is important for mental health and well-being. Descriptions of autistic play have typically focused on "deficits" and are based on comparisons to neurotypical "norms". According to the neurodiversity paradigm, it is important that autistic voices are highlighted and that difficulties, differences, and strengths are explored. With this in mind, we designed the present study to focus on the experiences and perspectives of autistic people concerning the topic of autistic play. Methods We conducted a consultation with autistic stakeholders, as well as with parents and teachers of autistic individuals to help us design the study and interview questions. We used semi-structured interviews with 22 autistic adults aged 18-57 years (clinically confirmed diagnosis, n = 21; self-diagnosed, n = 1) who live in the United Kingdom. We analyzed the data using interpretative phenomenological analysis to identify themes. Results We found important commonalities and differences in the ways that socialization in play, imaginary play, and flow (a state involving intense focus on the play) are experienced. Autistic adults discussed the importance of both solitary play and social play, with solitary play having an important recuperative function. They also reported preferences for parallel play and playing with similar autistic people. They also discussed imaginary play experiences, including social role-play and grounded-in-reality play, and the dual nature of flow experiences during play. Conclusions The findings of this study contrast with deficit-focused understandings of autistic play and build on neurodiversity-informed studies. We highlight, for example, the importance of considering the different circumstances under which solitary play or social play are preferred, as well as the importance of taking an individual approach to play. We encourage wider understanding and acceptance of these play preferences and experiences to support autistic people's well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Pritchard-Rowe
- Play & Communication Lab, Play in Education, Development and Learning (PEDAL) Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Carmen de Lemos
- Play & Communication Lab, Play in Education, Development and Learning (PEDAL) Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Howard
- School of Education, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Jenny Gibson
- Play & Communication Lab, Play in Education, Development and Learning (PEDAL) Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Bagnall R, Russell A, Brosnan M, Maras K. Autistic adults' inclination to lie in everyday situations. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2024; 28:718-731. [PMID: 37572035 PMCID: PMC10913365 DOI: 10.1177/13623613231183911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
LAY ABSTRACT Differences in social communication and understanding others' mental states may mean that autistic adults are less likely to deceive others than non-autistic individuals. We investigated whether autistic and non-autistic adults differ in their inclination to lie and which psychological factors are involved in the inclination to lie. We found that autistic and non-autistic groups reported a similar inclination to lie, and the extent to which participants viewed lying as acceptable helped to explain their inclination to deceive others. However, the other underlying psychological factors associated with deception inclination differed between autistic and non-autistic groups. Autistic adults' belief about their ability to lie and also how quickly they could lie helped to explain whether they were more or less inclined to lie. For non-autistic adults, their memory and ability to understand others' mental states helped to explain their lie inclination. We discuss these findings and recommend areas for future research.
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Atherton G, Edisbury E, Piovesan A, Cross L. Autism Through the Ages: A Mixed Methods Approach to Understanding How Age and Age of Diagnosis Affect Quality of Life. J Autism Dev Disord 2022; 52:3639-3654. [PMID: 34482523 PMCID: PMC9296439 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05235-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A significant proportion of autistic adults today were not diagnosed until later in life, a group referred to as the 'lost generation,' which may affect mental health. In Study 1 we explored quality of life and autistic trait levels in 420 autistic and TD adults, and in Study 2 we explored the experiences of 8 autistic adults diagnosed as adults. We found that autistic adults had lower quality of life outcomes and higher autistic trait levels which related to age of diagnosis, and qualitative findings indicated that while adults were empowered by their new diagnosis, they still require specialized supports. Our findings are discussed, emphasizing future directions and implications for the current care system in place for autistic adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gray Atherton
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, St Helens Rd, Liverpool, Ormskirk, L39 4QP, Lancashire, UK.
| | - Emma Edisbury
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, St Helens Rd, Liverpool, Ormskirk, L39 4QP, Lancashire, UK
| | | | - Liam Cross
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, St Helens Rd, Liverpool, Ormskirk, L39 4QP, Lancashire, UK
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Cross L, Piovesan A, Atherton G. Autistic people outperform neurotypicals in a cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes. Autism Res 2022; 15:1603-1608. [PMID: 35855595 PMCID: PMC9543219 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Prior research suggests that while autistic people may demonstrate poorer facial emotion recognition when stimuli are human, these differences lessen when stimuli are anthropomorphic. To investigate this further, this work explores emotion recognition in autistic and neurotypical adults (n = 196). Groups were compared on a standard and a cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test. Results indicated that autistic individuals were not significantly different from neurotypicals on the standard version. However, autistic people outperformed neurotypicals on the cartoon version. The implications for these findings regarding emotion recognition deficits and the social motivation account of autism are discussed and support the view of socio‐cognitive differences rather than deficits in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam Cross
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Andrea Piovesan
- Department of Design and Planning in Complex Environments, Università Iuav di Venezia, Venice, Italy
| | - Gray Atherton
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Liverpool, UK
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'They ask no questions and pass no criticism': A mixed-methods study exploring pet ownership in autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2022:10.1007/s10803-022-05622-y. [PMID: 35678947 PMCID: PMC10313530 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-022-05622-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Many autistic people cite a strong attachment to animals, and some studies suggest they may even show a bias towards animals over people. This mixed-methods study explored companion animal attachment in the adult autistic community. In a quantitative study with 735 people, we found that autistic adults were equally attached to their pets as neurotypicals but were less likely to own them, even though pet ownership corresponded with better mental health outcomes. Substituting pets for people also served as a compensatory mechanism for social contact in the autistic sample. In a second qualitative study, we explored the lived experiences of 16 autistic pet owners. The interpretive phenomenological analysis highlighted the benefits and the barriers to animal companionship. Together these mixed methods findings underline how pets improve the lives of their autistic owners. We conclude with specific recommendations for increasing animal companionship opportunities for autistic adults.
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Atherton G, Cross L. Reading the mind in cartoon eyes: Comparing human versus cartoon emotion recognition in those with high and low levels of autistic traits. Psychol Rep 2022; 125:1380-1396. [PMID: 33715510 PMCID: PMC9136470 DOI: 10.1177/0033294120988135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
People who have a high degree of autistic traits often underperform on theory of mind tasks such as perspective-taking or facial emotion recognition compared to those with lower levels of autistic traits. However, some research suggests that this may not be the case if the agent they are evaluating is anthropomorphic (i.e. animal or cartoon) rather than typically human. The present studies examined the relation between facial emotion recognition and autistic trait profiles in over 750 adults using either a standard or cartoon version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME) test. Results showed that those scoring above the clinical cut off for autistic traits on the Autism Quotient performed significantly worse than those with the lowest levels of autistic traits on the standard RME, while scores across these groups did not differ substantially on the cartoon version of the task. These findings add further evidence that theory of mind ability such as facial emotion recognition is not at a global deficit in those with a high degree of autistic traits. Instead, differences in this ability may be specific to evaluating human agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gray Atherton
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - Liam Cross
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
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Bagnall R, Russell A, Brosnan M, Maras K. Deceptive behaviour in autism: A scoping review. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2021; 26:293-307. [PMID: 34825581 PMCID: PMC8814957 DOI: 10.1177/13623613211057974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
LAY ABSTRACT The ability to deceive others is an important skill that usually develops in early childhood. In this review, we give an overview of studies that have examined deceptive behaviour in autistic children, adolescents and adults. We separated the study findings into three main categories and seven sub-categories: (1) Deception ability and prevalence (1a) gameplay deception; (1b) naturalistic deception; (2) Psychological processes in deception (2a) verbal, intellectual and social ability; (2b) ability to understand others' thoughts and beliefs; (2c) cognitive ability; and (3) Social learning (3a) training; (3b) social contexts. Contrary to some stereotypes, we found that autistic people can and do deceive but often find this more difficult than non-autistic people. We also found that autistic people may use different psychological processes than non-autistic people when deceiving and may get better at deception in adulthood.
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The judgment of mind: A comparison between children with typical development and children with autism spectrum conditions. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Davis R, Crompton CJ. What Do New Findings About Social Interaction in Autistic Adults Mean for Neurodevelopmental Research? PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:649-653. [PMID: 33560175 PMCID: PMC8114326 DOI: 10.1177/1745691620958010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Deficit-based accounts of social and communication abilities continue to dominate autism research. However, emerging findings suggest that this view may be overly simplistic and discount the two-way nature of interaction. Here we discuss the reconceptualization of social cognition to consider such difficulties as examples of bidirectional, multifaceted misattunement between autistic and nonautistic individuals. Aligned with progressive theoretical frameworks, emerging empirical research indicates that mismatches in communication styles can contribute to autistic social difficulties and the important role that nonautistic difficulties play. We highlight two areas of future research with the aim of providing empirical support for the views that the autistic community has proposed over the past 2 decades. We discuss the impact of such a paradigm shift on a number of levels, including how bridging the gap between different interaction styles can reduce stigma and increase understanding. Adopting such a framework will provide radical opportunities for transformative societal changes and education around inclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Davis
- The Salvesen Mindroom Research Centre, Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh
| | - Catherine J Crompton
- The Salvesen Mindroom Research Centre, Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh
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Reading Comprehension and Autism Spectrum Disorder: a Systematic Review of Interventions Involving Single-Case Experimental Designs. REVIEW JOURNAL OF AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40489-020-00200-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Enter the Wild: Autistic Traits and Their Relationship to Mentalizing and Social Interaction in Everyday Life. J Autism Dev Disord 2019; 49:4193-4208. [PMID: 31273579 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-019-04134-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Theories derived from lab-based research emphasize the importance of mentalizing for social interaction and propose a link between mentalizing, autistic traits, and social behavior. We tested these assumptions in everyday life. Via smartphone-based experience sampling and logging of smartphone usage behavior we quantified mentalizing and social interaction in our participants' natural environment. Mentalizing occurred less frequently than reasoning about actions and participants preferred to mentalize when alone. Autistic traits were negatively correlated with communication via smartphone. Yet, they were not associated with social media usage, a more indirect way of getting in touch with others. Our findings critically inform recent theories on social cognition, social behavior, and the role of autistic traits in these phenomena.
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Atherton G, Cross L. Animal Faux Pas: Two Legs Good Four Legs Bad for Theory of Mind, but Not in the Broad Autism Spectrum. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 2019; 180:81-95. [PMID: 31094293 DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2019.1593100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Research shows that the general population varies with regard to both autistic traits and theory of mind (ToM) ability. Other work has shown that autistic individuals may not underperform on ToM tests when the agent of evaluation is anthropomorphic rather than typically human. Two studies examined the relation between ToM and autistic trait profiles in over 650 adults using either the standard Faux Pas Recognition Test (FPT) or an anthropomorphized version of the FPT (FPTa). Results showed that autistic trait profiles were related to faux pas detection ability in the FPT but not the FPTa. Furthermore, while those with the broad autism phenotype scored significantly worse than those who were typically developed on the FPT, scores did not significantly differ on the FPTa. These findings add to a growing body of work suggesting that ToM ability is not at a global deficit in those on the autistic spectrum, but may relate to the mindreading of specifically human agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gray Atherton
- a Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing , Department of Psychology, University of Wolverhampton , Wolverhampton , UK
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Rasmussen CE, Jiang YV. Judging social interaction in the Heider and Simmel movie. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2019; 72:2350-2361. [PMID: 30827187 DOI: 10.1177/1747021819838764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Simple displays of moving shapes can give rise to percepts of animacy. These films elicit impoverished narratives in some individuals, such as those with an autism spectrum disorder. However, the verbal demand of producing a narrative limits the utility of this task. Non-verbal tasks have so far focused on detecting animate objects. Lacking from previous research is a task that relies less on verbal description but more than animacy perception. Here, we presented data using a new social interaction judgement task. Healthy young adults viewed the Heider and Simmel movie and pressed one button whenever they perceived social interaction and another button when no social interaction was perceived. We measured the time points at which social judgement began, the fluctuation of the judgement in relation to stimulus kinematic properties, and the overall mean of social judgement. Participants with higher autism traits reported lower levels of social interaction. Reversing the film in time produced lower social interaction judgements, though the temporal profile was preserved. Our study suggests that both low-level motion characteristics and high-level understanding contribute to social interaction judgement. The finding may facilitate future research on other populations and stimulate computational vision work on factors that drive social judgements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly E Rasmussen
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Yuhong V Jiang
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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