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Aebisher D, Woźnicki P, Bartusik-Aebisher D. Photodynamic Therapy and Adaptive Immunity Induced by Reactive Oxygen Species: Recent Reports. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:967. [PMID: 38473328 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16050967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer is one of the most significant causes of death worldwide. Despite the rapid development of modern forms of therapy, results are still unsatisfactory. The prognosis is further worsened by the ability of cancer cells to metastasize. Thus, more effective forms of therapy, such as photodynamic therapy, are constantly being developed. The photodynamic therapeutic regimen involves administering a photosensitizer that selectively accumulates in tumor cells or is present in tumor vasculature prior to irradiation with light at a wavelength corresponding to the photosensitizer absorbance, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species. Reactive oxygen species are responsible for the direct and indirect destruction of cancer cells. Photodynamically induced local inflammation has been shown to have the ability to activate an adaptive immune system response resulting in the destruction of tumor lesions and the creation of an immune memory. This paper focuses on presenting the latest scientific reports on the specific immune response activated by photodynamic therapy. We present newly discovered mechanisms for the induction of the adaptive response by analyzing its various stages, and the possible difficulties in generating it. We also present the results of research over the past 10 years that have focused on improving the immunological efficacy of photodynamic therapy for improved cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Aebisher
- Department of Photomedicine and Physical Chemistry, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Paweł Woźnicki
- Students English Division Science Club, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Dorota Bartusik-Aebisher
- Department of Biochemistry and General Chemistry, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
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Chou W, Sun T, Peng N, Wang Z, Chen D, Qiu H, Zhao H. Photodynamic Therapy-Induced Anti-Tumor Immunity: Influence Factors and Synergistic Enhancement Strategies. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2617. [PMID: 38004595 PMCID: PMC10675361 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15112617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an approved therapeutic procedure that exerts cytotoxic activity towards tumor cells by activating photosensitizers (PSs) with light exposure to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Compared to traditional treatment strategies such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, PDT not only kills the primary tumors, but also effectively suppresses metastatic tumors by activating the immune response. However, the anti-tumor immune effects induced by PDT are influenced by several factors, including the localization of PSs in cells, PSs concentration, fluence rate of light, oxygen concentration, and the integrity of immune function. In this review, we systematically summarize the influence factors of anti-tumor immune effects mediated by PDT. Furthermore, an update on the combination of PDT and other immunotherapy strategies are provided. Finally, the future directions and challenges of anti-tumor immunity induced by PDT are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxin Chou
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; (W.C.); (T.S.); (N.P.); (D.C.)
| | - Tianzhen Sun
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; (W.C.); (T.S.); (N.P.); (D.C.)
| | - Nian Peng
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; (W.C.); (T.S.); (N.P.); (D.C.)
| | - Zixuan Wang
- Department of Laser Medicine, the First Medical Center, PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Defu Chen
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; (W.C.); (T.S.); (N.P.); (D.C.)
| | - Haixia Qiu
- Department of Laser Medicine, the First Medical Center, PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Hongyou Zhao
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China; (W.C.); (T.S.); (N.P.); (D.C.)
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Gurung P, Lim J, Shrestha R, Kim YW. Chlorin e6-associated photodynamic therapy enhances abscopal antitumor effects via inhibition of PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4647. [PMID: 36944686 PMCID: PMC10030802 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30256-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that photodynamic therapy (PDT) with Chlorin e6 (Ce6) enhances antitumor abscopal effects via inhibition of the programmed cell death-1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) immune checkpoint. By using syngeneic melanoma and pancreatic tumor mouse models, we studied the Ce6-PDT-induced immune responses in local and distant tumor microenvironments. In addition, the Ce6-PDT's target in the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction was analyzed in MC38-hPD-L1 colon cancer and PD-1 expressing Jurkat T cell coculture. The tumors in the irradiated and non-irradiated sites in the abscopal effective (Abseff) group of both mouse models were regressed, proving the abscopal effect. The immunogenic effect in the Abseff group was associated with an expansion of T cell and other immune cells infiltration without changes in the CD39+ population in either the right or left tumors compared to control group. Furthermore, the abscopal ineffective (Absineff) group demonstrated lesser increase of T cells, decreased immune cell infiltration, and increased CD39-expressing Treg cells without suppression of tumor growth. In the coculture with PD-1-expressing Jurkat T cell, Ce6-PDT efficiently suppressed the PD-1/PD-L1 interactions by increasing the proliferation and cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells while decreasing CD39-expressing Treg cells in a dose-dependent manner. Likewise, the inhibition of PD-1/PD-L1 interactions was also correlated with the increased production of IL-2 and Granzyme B. Our findings imply that Ce6-PDT is a promising immunotherapy with the potential to improve the abscopal effect.
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Grants
- (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), (S3034405) The Korea Medical Device Development Fund grant funded by the Korea government (the Ministry of Science and ICT, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), and the Technology development Program (S3034405) funded by the Ministry of SMEs and Startups(MSS, Korea).
- (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), (S3034405) The Korea Medical Device Development Fund grant funded by the Korea government (the Ministry of Science and ICT, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), and the Technology development Program (S3034405) funded by the Ministry of SMEs and Startups(MSS, Korea).
- (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), (S3034405) The Korea Medical Device Development Fund grant funded by the Korea government (the Ministry of Science and ICT, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), and the Technology development Program (S3034405) funded by the Ministry of SMEs and Startups(MSS, Korea).
- (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), (S3034405) The Korea Medical Device Development Fund grant funded by the Korea government (the Ministry of Science and ICT, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy, the Ministry of Health & Welfare, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety) (NTIS Number: 1711174319, RS-2020-KD000106), and the Technology development Program (S3034405) funded by the Ministry of SMEs and Startups(MSS, Korea).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi Gurung
- Dongsung Cancer Center, Dongsung Biopharmaceutical, Daegu, 41061, South Korea
| | - Junmo Lim
- Dongsung Cancer Center, Dongsung Biopharmaceutical, Daegu, 41061, South Korea
| | - Rajeev Shrestha
- Dongsung Cancer Center, Dongsung Biopharmaceutical, Daegu, 41061, South Korea
| | - Yong-Wan Kim
- Dongsung Cancer Center, Dongsung Biopharmaceutical, Daegu, 41061, South Korea.
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Huis in ‘t Veld RV, Heuts J, Ma S, Cruz LJ, Ossendorp FA, Jager MJ. Current Challenges and Opportunities of Photodynamic Therapy against Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020330. [PMID: 36839652 PMCID: PMC9965442 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established, minimally invasive treatment for specific types of cancer. During PDT, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated that ultimately induce cell death and disruption of the tumor area. Moreover, PDT can result in damage to the tumor vasculature and induce the release and/or exposure of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that may initiate an antitumor immune response. However, there are currently several challenges of PDT that limit its widespread application for certain indications in the clinic. METHODS A literature study was conducted to comprehensively discuss these challenges and to identify opportunities for improvement. RESULTS The most notable challenges of PDT and opportunities to improve them have been identified and discussed. CONCLUSIONS The recent efforts to improve the current challenges of PDT are promising, most notably those that focus on enhancing immune responses initiated by the treatment. The application of these improvements has the potential to enhance the antitumor efficacy of PDT, thereby broadening its potential application in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben V. Huis in ‘t Veld
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
| | - Jeroen Heuts
- Department of Immunology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Sen Ma
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Luis J. Cruz
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Ferry A. Ossendorp
- Department of Immunology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Martine J. Jager
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
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Kong C, Chen X. Combined Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy and Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment: A Review. Int J Nanomedicine 2022; 17:6427-6446. [PMID: 36540374 PMCID: PMC9760263 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s388996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoactivation therapy based on photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) has been identified as a tumour ablation modality for numerous cancer indications, with photosensitisers and photothermal conversion agents playing important roles in the phototherapy process, especially in recent decades. In addition, the iteration of nanotechnology has strongly promoted the development of phototherapy in tumour treatment. PDT can increase the sensitivity of tumour cells to PTT by interfering with the tumour microenvironment, whereas the heat generated by PTT can increase blood flow, improve oxygen supply and enhance the PDT therapeutic effect. In addition, tumour cell debris generated by phototherapy can serve as tumour-associated antigens, evoking antitumor immune responses. In this review, the research progress of phototherapy, and its research effects in combination with immunotherapy on the treatment of tumours are mainly outlined, and issues that may need continued attention in the future are raised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunqing Kong
- Department of medical imaging center, central hospital affiliated to Shandong first medical university, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xingcai Chen
- Department of Human Anatomy and Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Nanning, People’s Republic of China,Correspondence: Xingcai Chen, Email
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Serrano-Quintero A, Sequeda-Juárez A, Pérez-Hernández CA, Sosa-Delgado SM, Mendez-Tenorio A, Ramón-Gallegos E. Immunogenic analysis of epitope-based vaccine candidate induced by photodynamic therapy in MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer cells. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2022; 40:103174. [PMID: 36602069 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.103174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is used to treat tumors through selective cytotoxic effects. PDT induces damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) expression, which can cause an immunogenic death cell (IDC). In this study we identified potential immunogenic epitopes generated by PDT on triple-negative breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231). METHODS MDA-MB-231 cells were exposed to PDT using ALA (160 µg/mL)/630 nm at 8 J/cm2. Membrane proteins were extracted and separated by 2D PAGE. Proteins overexpressed were identified by LC-MS/MS and analyzed in silico through a peptide-HLA docking in order to identify the epitopes with more immunogenicity and antigenicity properties, as well as lower allergenicity and toxicity activity. The selected peptides were evaluated in response to macrophage activation and cytokine release by flow cytometry. RESULTS Differential proteins were overexpressed in the cells treated with PDT. A group of 16 peptides were identified from them, established in a rigorous selection by measuring antigenicity, immunogenicity, allergenicity, and toxicity in silico. The final selection was based on molecular dynamics, where 2 peptides showed the highest stability regarding to the RMSD value. These peptides were obtained from the proteins calreticulin and HSP90. The cytokine analysis evidenced macrophage activation by the releasing of TNF. CONCLUSION Two peptides were identified from calreticulin and HSP90; proteins induced by PDT in MDA-MB-231 cells. Both epitopes showed immunogenic potential as a peptide-based vaccine for triple-negative breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Serrano-Quintero
- Laboratorio de Citopatología Ambiental, ENCB, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Campus Zacatenco, Calle Wilfrido Massieu Esquina Cda. Manuel Stampa, Col. Zacatenco. Alcaldia Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City C.P. 07738, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Sequeda-Juárez
- Laboratorio de Citopatología Ambiental, ENCB, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Campus Zacatenco, Calle Wilfrido Massieu Esquina Cda. Manuel Stampa, Col. Zacatenco. Alcaldia Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City C.P. 07738, Mexico
| | - C Angélica Pérez-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Citopatología Ambiental, ENCB, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Campus Zacatenco, Calle Wilfrido Massieu Esquina Cda. Manuel Stampa, Col. Zacatenco. Alcaldia Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City C.P. 07738, Mexico
| | - Sara M Sosa-Delgado
- Laboratorio de Citopatología Ambiental, ENCB, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Campus Zacatenco, Calle Wilfrido Massieu Esquina Cda. Manuel Stampa, Col. Zacatenco. Alcaldia Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City C.P. 07738, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Mendez-Tenorio
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Biotecnología Genómica, Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 11340, Mexico
| | - Eva Ramón-Gallegos
- Laboratorio de Citopatología Ambiental, ENCB, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Campus Zacatenco, Calle Wilfrido Massieu Esquina Cda. Manuel Stampa, Col. Zacatenco. Alcaldia Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City C.P. 07738, Mexico.
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Cocuz IG, Cocuz ME, Repanovici A, Sabău AH, Niculescu R, Tinca AC, Vunvulea V, Budin CE, Szoke AR, Popelea MC, Moraru R, Cotoi TC, Cotoi OS. Scientific Research Directions on the Histopathology and Immunohistochemistry of the Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Scientometric Study. Medicina (B Aires) 2022; 58:medicina58101449. [PMID: 36295609 PMCID: PMC9611311 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58101449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is one of the most frequently occurring types of cancer in humans. Scientometric research is an innovative method for analyzing the research trends in various domains, with great implications in the field of medicine. Materials and Methods: We searched the Web of Science database with the following established query terms: “Squamous cell carcinoma”, “skin”, and “immunohistochemistry”. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 76 articles were selected. The present study aims to analyze, based on the frequency of use of keywords with scientometric algorithms and map-based distributions, the trends of the research concerning cSCCs in 2017–2022. Results: A graphical representation based on 11 scientometric maps presented the division of the keywords into seven clusters, from which seven categories of research interest were defined. The clusters represent a multidisciplinary approach to the diagnosis and treatment of cSCCs, cancer diagnostics, patient outcomes, histopathological importance, management of cSCCs, role of progression, and adequate treatment of and importance of immunohistochemistry for cSCCs. The distribution of the citations shows the importance of the available research on cSCCs by analyzing the first five most-cited articles included in our study in direct concordance with the seven defined clusters. Conclusion: The scientometric research method reveals the interest of research in the multidisciplinary approach used to obtain the best outcomes for the patient, including a targeted investigation, as well as diagnostic and treatment options. The trends in the research reveal that histopathological diagnostics and immunohistochemistry, combined with molecular techniques, are the most important tools used to establish a personalized diagnosis, thus increasing the quality of life and life expectancy for patients with cSCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iuliu Gabriel Cocuz
- Doctoral School of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Maria Elena Cocuz
- Fundamental Prophylactic and Clinical Disciplines Department, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500003 Brașov, Romania
- Clinical Infectious Diseases Hospital of Brasov, 500174 Brasov, Romania
- Correspondence:
| | - Angela Repanovici
- Faculty of Product Design and Environment, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500036 Brasov, Romania
| | - Adrian-Horațiu Sabău
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Raluca Niculescu
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Andreea-Cătălina Tinca
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Vlad Vunvulea
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Corina Eugenia Budin
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Andreea Raluca Szoke
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
| | | | - Raluca Moraru
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Titiana Cornelia Cotoi
- Pharmaceutical Technique Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pharmacy No. 2, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Ovidiu Simion Cotoi
- Pathology Department, Mures Clinical County Hospital, 540011 Targu Mures, Romania
- Pathophysiology Department, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade” of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
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Nkune NW, Simelane NWN, Montaseri H, Abrahamse H. Photodynamic Therapy-Mediated Immune Responses in Three-Dimensional Tumor Models. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12618. [PMID: 34884424 PMCID: PMC8657498 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222312618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising non-invasive phototherapeutic approach for cancer therapy that can eliminate local tumor cells and produce systemic antitumor immune responses. In recent years, significant efforts have been made in developing strategies to further investigate the immune mechanisms triggered by PDT. The majority of in vitro experimental models still rely on the two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures that do not mimic a three-dimensional (3D) cellular environment in the human body, such as cellular heterogeneity, nutrient gradient, growth mechanisms, and the interaction between cells as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM) and therapeutic resistance to anticancer treatments. In addition, in vivo animal studies are highly expensive and time consuming, which may also show physiological discrepancies between animals and humans. In this sense, there is growing interest in the utilization of 3D tumor models, since they precisely mimic different features of solid tumors. This review summarizes the characteristics and techniques for 3D tumor model generation. Furthermore, we provide an overview of innate and adaptive immune responses induced by PDT in several in vitro and in vivo tumor models. Future perspectives are highlighted for further enhancing PDT immune responses as well as ideal experimental models for antitumor immune response studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Heidi Abrahamse
- Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa; (N.W.N.); (N.W.N.S.); (H.M.)
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Gunaydin G, Gedik ME, Ayan S. Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment and Diagnosis of Cancer-A Review of the Current Clinical Status. Front Chem 2021; 9:686303. [PMID: 34409014 PMCID: PMC8365093 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.686303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been used as an anti-tumor treatment method for a long time and photosensitizers (PS) can be used in various types of tumors. Originally, light is an effective tool that has been used in the treatment of diseases for ages. The effects of combination of specific dyes with light illumination was demonstrated at the beginning of 20th century and novel PDT approaches have been developed ever since. Main strategies of current studies are to reduce off-target effects and improve pharmacokinetic properties. Given the high interest and vast literature about the topic, approval of PDT as the first drug/device combination by the FDA should come as no surprise. PDT consists of two stages of treatment, combining light energy with a PS in order to destruct tumor cells after activation by light. In general, PDT has fewer side effects and toxicity than chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. In addition to the purpose of treatment, several types of PSs can be used for diagnostic purposes for tumors. Such approaches are called photodynamic diagnosis (PDD). In this Review, we provide a general overview of the clinical applications of PDT in cancer, including the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Assessment of PDT therapeutic efficacy in the clinic will be discussed, since identifying predictors to determine the response to treatment is crucial. In addition, examples of PDT in various types of tumors will be discussed. Furthermore, combination of PDT with other therapy modalities such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery and immunotherapy will be emphasized, since such approaches seem to be promising in terms of enhancing effectiveness against tumor. The combination of PDT with other treatments may yield better results than by single treatments. Moreover, the utilization of lower doses in a combination therapy setting may cause less side effects and better results than single therapy. A better understanding of the effectiveness of PDT in a combination setting in the clinic as well as the optimization of such complex multimodal treatments may expand the clinical applications of PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurcan Gunaydin
- Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - M. Emre Gedik
- Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University Cancer Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Seylan Ayan
- Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
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Chauhan A, Khan T, Omri A. Design and Encapsulation of Immunomodulators onto Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8037. [PMID: 34360803 PMCID: PMC8347387 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of cancer immunotherapy is to reactivate autoimmune responses to combat cancer cells. To stimulate the immune system, immunomodulators, such as adjuvants, cytokines, vaccines, and checkpoint inhibitors, are extensively designed and studied. Immunomodulators have several drawbacks, such as drug instability, limited half-life, rapid drug clearance, and uncontrolled immune responses when used directly in cancer immunotherapy. Several strategies have been used to overcome these limitations. A simple and effective approach is the loading of immunomodulators onto gold-based nanoparticles (GNPs). As gold is highly biocompatible, GNPs can be administered intravenously, which aids in increasing cancer cell permeability and retention time. Various gold nanoplatforms, including nanospheres, nanoshells, nanorods, nanocages, and nanostars have been effectively used in cancer immunotherapy. Gold nanostars (GNS) are one of the most promising GNP platforms because of their unusual star-shaped geometry, which significantly increases light absorption and provides high photon-to-heat conversion efficiency due to the plasmonic effect. As a result, GNPs are a useful vehicle for delivering antigens and adjuvants that support the immune system in killing tumor cells by facilitating or activating cytotoxic T lymphocytes. This review represents recent progress in encapsulating immunomodulators into GNPs for utility in a cancer immunotherapeutic regimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshita Chauhan
- Department of Quality Assurance, SVKM’s Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, Mumbai 400056, Maharashtra, India;
| | - Tabassum Khan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Quality Assurance, SVKM’s Dr. Bhanuben Nanavati College of Pharmacy, Mumbai 400056, Maharashtra, India;
| | - Abdelwahab Omri
- The Novel Drug & Vaccine Delivery Systems Facility, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada
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Jin F, Liu D, Xu X, Ji J, Du Y. Nanomaterials-Based Photodynamic Therapy with Combined Treatment Improves Antitumor Efficacy Through Boosting Immunogenic Cell Death. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:4693-4712. [PMID: 34267518 PMCID: PMC8275223 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s314506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Benefiting from the rapid development of nanotechnology, photodynamic therapy (PDT) is arising as a novel non-invasive clinical treatment for specific cancers, which exerts direct efficacy in destroying primary tumors by generating excessive cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Notably, PDT-induced cell death is related to T cell-mediated antitumor immune responses through induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD). However, ICD elicited via PDT is not strong enough and is limited by immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM). Therefore, it is necessary to improve PDT efficacy through enhancing ICD with the combination of synergistic tumor therapies. Herein, the recent progress of nanomaterials-based PDT combined with chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, employing ICD-boosted treatments is reviewed. An outlook about the future application in clinics of nanomaterials-based PDT strategies is also mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiyang Jin
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutics Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Liu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutics Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoling Xu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutics Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiansong Ji
- Department of Radiology, Lishui Hospital of Zhejiang University, Lishui, 323000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongzhong Du
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutics Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
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12
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Anand S, Govande M, Yasinchak A, Heusinkveld L, Shakya S, Fairchild R, Maytin EV. Painless Photodynamic Therapy Triggers Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in a Murine Model of UV-induced Squamous Skin Pre-cancer. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 97:607-617. [PMID: 33113217 PMCID: PMC10481390 DOI: 10.1111/php.13350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Painless photodynamic therapy (p-PDT), which involves application of photosensitizer and immediate exposure to light to treat actinic keratosis (AK) in patients, causes negligible pain on the day of treatment but leads to delayed inflammation and effective lesion clearance (Kaw et al., J Am Acad Dermatol 2020). To better understand how p-PDT works, hairless mice with UV-induced AK were treated with p-PDT and monitored for 2 weeks. Lesion clearance after p-PDT was similar to clearance after conventional PDT (c-PDT). However, lesion biopsies showed minimal cell death and less production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in p-PDT treated than in c-PDT-treated lesions. Interestingly, p-PDT triggered vigorous recruitment of immune cells associated with innate immunity. Neutrophils (Ly6G+) and macrophages (F4/80+) appeared at 4 h and peaked at 24 h after p-PDT. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including calreticulin, HMGB1, and HSP70, were expressed at maximum levels around 24 h post-p-PDT. Total T cells (CD3+) were increased at 24 h, whereas large increases in cytotoxic (CD8+) and regulatory (Foxp3+) T cells were observed at 1 and 2 weeks post-p-PDT. In summary, the ability of p-PDT to eliminate AK lesions, despite very little overt cellular damage, appears to involve stimulation of a local immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Anand
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- Dermatology and Plastic Surgery Institute
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of CWRU, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | | | | | - Lauren Heusinkveld
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of CWRU, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | | | - Robert Fairchild
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of CWRU, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Edward V. Maytin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
- Dermatology and Plastic Surgery Institute
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of CWRU, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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13
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Yang D, Lei S, Pan K, Chen T, Lin J, Ni G, Liu J, Zeng X, Chen Q, Dan H. Application of photodynamic therapy in immune-related diseases. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2021; 34:102318. [PMID: 33940209 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a therapeutic modality that utilizes photodamage caused by photosensitizers and oxygen after exposure to a specific wavelength of light. Owing to its low toxicity, high selectivity, and minimally invasive properties, PDT has been widely applied to treat various malignant tumors, premalignant lesions, and infectious diseases. Moreover, there is growing evidence of its immunomodulatory effects and potential for the treatment of immune-related diseases. This review mainly focuses on the effect of PDT on immunity and its application in immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Shangxue Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Keran Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Ting Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Jiao Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Guangcheng Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Jiaxin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Xin Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Qianming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Hongxia Dan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, No. 14, Section 3, Renminnan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
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14
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Zhai Y, Lu Q, Lou T, Cao G, Wang S, Zhang Z. MUC16 affects the biological functions of ovarian cancer cells and induces an antitumor immune response by activating dendritic cells. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2020; 8:1494. [PMID: 33313239 PMCID: PMC7729312 DOI: 10.21037/atm-20-6388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Ovarian cancer is the 5th most common lethal gynecological malignancy with a 5-year survival rate of about 47% and a localized stage diagnosis of 15%, leading to about 125,000 global deaths each year. Therefore, it is urgent to explore novel and effective strategies for radical cure. Methods Short hairpin RNA targeting the Mucin16 (MUC16) gene was used to establish MUC16 knockdown in ovarian cancer cells. RT-PCR was performed to quantify the expression of MUC16 mRNA, and western blotting was performed to detect the expression of MUC16 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins. Cell counting kit 8 (CCK8) wound healing and transwell assays were performed to assess cell proliferation and cell invasion. Flow cytometry was used to detect CD80-, CD83-, and CD86-expressing dendritic cells (DCs) and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) activated by MUC16-pulsed DCs. Results In this study, we identified MUC16 as a novel target antigen for immunotherapy against ovarian cancer, which was significantly up regulated in ovarian cancer cells and high-grade ovarian serous adenocarcinoma tissues. MUC16 knockdown in Ovcar3 cells using short hairpin RNA targeting the MUC16 gene suppressed the proliferation of migration, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in Ovcar3 cells markedly. MUC16 significantly up-regulated CD80, CD83, and CD86 (mature makers) expression in DCs and T-cell transformation into CD8+ T-cells detected by Flow cytometry. Conclusions For malignant ovarian cancer, MUC16 overexpression promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. MUC16 pulsing mediated DC maturation and activated CTL response in vitro. Our study offers promising DC-based immunotherapy of considerable clinical value for patients with ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Lu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tong Lou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Guangming Cao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuzhen Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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15
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Immunostimulatory Effects of Radiotherapy for Local and Systemic Control of Melanoma: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239324. [PMID: 33297519 PMCID: PMC7730562 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, modern therapies involving immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, and oncolytic virus have been developed. Because of the limited treatment effect of modern therapy alone, the immunostimulatory effect of radiotherapy attracted increasing attention. The combined use of radiotherapy and modern therapy has been examined clinically and non-clinically, and its effectiveness has been confirmed recently. Because melanomas have high immunogenicity, better therapeutic outcomes are desired when using immunotherapy. However, sufficient therapeutic effects have not yet been achieved. Thus far, radiotherapy has been used only for local control of tumors. Although extremely rare, radiotherapy has also been reported for systemic control, i.e., abscopal effect. This is thought to be due to an antitumor immune response. Therefore, we herein summarize past information on not only the mechanism of immune effects on radiotherapy but also biomarkers reported in case reports on abscopal effects. We also reviewed the animal model suitable for evaluating abscopal effects. These results pave the way for further basic research or clinical studies on new treatment methods for melanoma. Currently, palliative radiation is administered to patients with metastatic melanoma for local control. If it is feasible to provide both systemic and local control, the treatment benefit for the patients is very large.
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Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Immune Responses Triggered in Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy: Clinical Recommendations. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9020333. [PMID: 31991650 PMCID: PMC7074240 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9020333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an anticancer strategy utilizing light-mediated activation of a photosensitizer (PS) which has accumulated in tumor and/or surrounding vasculature. Upon activation, the PS mediates tumor destruction through the generation of reactive oxygen species and tumor-associated vasculature damage, generally resulting in high tumor cure rates. In addition, a PDT-induced immune response against the tumor has been documented in several studies. However, some contradictory results have been reported as well. With the aim of improving the understanding and awareness of the immunological events triggered by PDT, this review focuses on the immunological effects post-PDT, described in preclinical and clinical studies. The reviewed preclinical evidence indicates that PDT is able to elicit a local inflammatory response in the treated site, which can develop into systemic antitumor immunity, providing long-term tumor growth control. Nevertheless, this aspect of PDT has barely been explored in clinical studies. It is clear that further understanding of these events can impact the design of more potent PDT treatments. Based on the available preclinical knowledge, recommendations are given to guide future clinical research to gain valuable information on the immune response induced by PDT. Such insights directly obtained from cancer patients can only improve the success of PDT treatment, either alone or in combination with immunomodulatory approaches.
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Gorbet MJ, Ranjan A. Cancer immunotherapy with immunoadjuvants, nanoparticles, and checkpoint inhibitors: Recent progress and challenges in treatment and tracking response to immunotherapy. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 207:107456. [PMID: 31863820 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation are accepted as the preferred treatment modalities against cancer, but in recent years the use of immunotherapeutic approaches has gained prominence as the fourth treatment modality in cancer patients. In this approach, a patient's innate and adaptive immune systems are activated to achieve clearance of occult cancerous cells. In this review, we discuss the preclinical and clinical immunotherapeutic (e.g., immunoadjuvants (in-situ vaccines, oncolytic viruses, CXC antagonists, device activated agents), organic and inorganic nanoparticles, and checkpoint blockade) that are under investigation for cancer therapy and diagnostics. Additionally, the innovations in imaging of immune cells for tracking therapeutic responses and limitations (e.g., toxicity, inefficient immunomodulation, etc.) are described. Existing data suggest that if immune therapy is optimized, it can be a real and potentially paradigm-shifting cancer treatment frontier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael-Joseph Gorbet
- Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA
| | - Ashish Ranjan
- Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74074, USA.
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