1
|
Müller JDA, Giacobe LJ, Grassi V, Palmeira ALR. The use of angiotensin receptor blockers in dementia prevention. Dement Neuropsychol 2023; 17:e20233006. [PMID: 37681194 PMCID: PMC10481907 DOI: 10.1590/1980-5764-dn-2023-3006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia are preventable and highly prevalent diseases, as is systemic arterial hypertension. Thus, it is speculated that angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) may be neuroprotective against AD. Objective The aim of this study was to evaluate if the use of ARBs confers a neuroprotective effect on AD, through a systematic review. Methods Studies published on Embase, LILACS, SciELO, and PubMed were evaluated. The selection of the studies included those that evaluated the use of antihypertensive drugs in individuals with a previous diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. The data were extracted with the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care (EPOC) form. The risk of bias was evaluated by the EPOC "Risk of bias tool." Results A total of 12 articles were identified, and 3 articles were selected. Two of them analyzed the use of ARB/ACEI versus other antihypertensives and the development of dementia. Conclusion There is a tendency for ARBs to be superior to other antihypertensives in preventing dementia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Vanise Grassi
- Universidade do Vale do Taquari, Centro de Ciências Médicas, Lajeado RS, Brazil
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shahid K, Tamene Y, Mody SP, Sadiq KO, Shivakumar YM, Burra E, Ramphall S. Comparative Study of Safety and Efficacy of Angiotensin-Receptor Blockers and Anti Amyloid-ß Monoclonal Antibodies for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review. Cureus 2023; 15:e43984. [PMID: 37746412 PMCID: PMC10516255 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.43984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-ß (Aß) plaques and Neurofibrillary tangles are hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Recent advances to find a cure for AD have led to the exploration of Anti-Aß monoclonal antibodies and angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs). The antibodies can decrease plaque formation or remove already formed plaques. ARBs increase angiotensin II (AT2) levels and decrease the effect of AT2 on the AT1 receptor (AT1R). This systematic analysis reviews evidence of monoclonal antibodies (Aducanumab, Lecanemab, Donanemab, and Solanezumab) and ARBs in managing AD. An in-depth methodical search was conducted across PubMed, Science Direct, and Mendeley. PRISMA 2020 guidelines were followed for this study. Randomized control trials for antibodies and ARBs and one retrospective cohort study were included. The comparison was made among studies that shared similar measured outcomes. Antibodies were found to be more effective than ARBs, with Aducanumab and Lecanemab being the most effective. ARBs, on the other hand, were found to be the safer choice. Further trials of longer duration and larger sample sizes are needed to explore both groups' long-term safety and efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kamran Shahid
- Internal Medicine/Family Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Yonas Tamene
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Shefali P Mody
- Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Kaiser O Sadiq
- General Surgery, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Yogamba M Shivakumar
- Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Eshwar Burra
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Shivana Ramphall
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tada AM, Hamezah HS, Pahrudin Arrozi A, Abu Bakar ZH, Yanagisawa D, Tooyama I. Pharmaceutical Potential of Casein-Derived Tripeptide Met-Lys-Pro: Improvement in Cognitive Impairments and Suppression of Inflammation in APP/PS1 Mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 89:835-848. [PMID: 35964178 PMCID: PMC9535549 DOI: 10.3233/jad-220192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background: Tripeptide Met-Lys-Pro (MKP), a component of casein hydrolysates, has effective angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. Brain angiotensin II enzyme activates the NADPH oxidase complex via angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1) and enhances oxidative stress injury. ACE inhibitors improved cognitive function in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) mouse models and previous clinical trials. Thus, although undetermined, MKP may be effective against pathological amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation-induced cognitive impairment. Objective: The current study aimed to investigate the potential of MKP as a pharmaceutical against AD by examining MKP’s effect on cognitive function and molecular changes in the brain using double transgenic (APP/PS1) mice. Methods: Experimental procedures were conducted in APP/PS1 mice (n = 38) with a C57BL/6 background. A novel object recognition test was used to evaluate recognition memory. ELISA was used to measure insoluble Aβ40, Aβ42, and TNF-α levels in brain tissue. Immunohistochemical analysis allowed the assessment of glial cell activation in MKP-treated APP/PS1 mice. Results: The novel object recognition test revealed that MKP-treated APP/PS1 mice showed significant improvement in recognition memory. ELISA of brain tissue showed that MKP significantly reduced insoluble Aβ40, Aβ42, and TNF-α levels. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated the suppression of the marker for microglia and reactive astrocytes in MKP-treated APP/PS1 mice. Conclusion: Based on these results, we consider that MKP could ameliorate pathological Aβ accumulation-induced cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, our findings suggest that MKP potentially contributes to preventing cognitive decline in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asuka Matsuzaki Tada
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan.,Functional Food Ingredients Group, Food Ingredients and Technology Institute, R&D Division, Morinaga Milk Industry Co., Ltd., Zama, Japan
| | - Hamizah Shahirah Hamezah
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan.,Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Aslina Pahrudin Arrozi
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | | | - Daijiro Yanagisawa
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Ikuo Tooyama
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Stakos DA, Stamatelopoulos K, Bampatsias D, Sachse M, Zormpas E, Vlachogiannis NI, Tual-Chalot S, Stellos K. The Alzheimer's Disease Amyloid-Beta Hypothesis in Cardiovascular Aging and Disease: JACC Focus Seminar. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 75:952-967. [PMID: 32130931 PMCID: PMC7042886 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Aging-related cellular and molecular processes including low-grade inflammation are major players in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Epidemiological studies report an independent interaction between the development of dementia and the incidence of CVD in several populations, suggesting the presence of overlapping molecular mechanisms. Accumulating experimental and clinical evidence suggests that amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides may function as a link among aging, CVD, and AD. Aging-related vascular and cardiac deposition of Αβ induces tissue inflammation and organ dysfunction, both important components of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid hypothesis. In this review, the authors describe the determinants of Aβ metabolism, summarize the effects of Aβ on atherothrombosis and cardiac dysfunction, discuss the clinical value of Αβ1-40 in CVD prognosis and patient risk stratification, and present the therapeutic interventions that may alter Aβ metabolism in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios A Stakos
- Cardiology Department, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Kimon Stamatelopoulos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine, Athens, Greece; Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Dimitrios Bampatsias
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine, Athens, Greece
| | - Marco Sachse
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Medical School, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Eleftherios Zormpas
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Nikolaos I Vlachogiannis
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Tual-Chalot
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantinos Stellos
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Cardiology, Freeman Hospital, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre, Newcastle University and Newcastle upon Tyne NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li X, Xuan W, Chen D, Gao H, Wang G, Guo Q, Wang Y, Song H, Cai B. Research Progress of Alzheimer's Disease Therapeutic Drugs: Based on Renin-Angiotensin System Axis. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 78:1315-1338. [PMID: 33164932 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
It is widely recognized that Alzheimer's disease (AD) has a complicate link to renin-angiotensin system (RAS). It is known that cerebrovascular disease has some connections with AD, but most of the studies are still conducted in parallel or independently. Although previous research came up with large number of hypotheses about the pathogenesis of AD, it does not include the mechanism of RAS-related regulation of AD. It has been found that many components of RAS have been changed in AD. For example, the multifunctional and high-efficiency vasoconstrictor Ang II and Ang III with similar effects are changed under the action of other RAS signal peptides; these signal peptides are believed to help improve nerve injury and cognitive function. These changes may lead to neuropathological changes of AD, and progressive defects of cognitive function, which are association with some hypotheses of AD. The role of RAS in AD gradually attracts our attention, and RAS deserved to be considered carefully in the pathogenesis of AD. This review discusses the mechanisms of RAS participating in the three current hypotheses of AD: neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and amyloid-β protein (Aβ) hypothesis, as well as the drugs that regulate RAS systems already in clinical or in clinical trials. It further demonstrates the importance of RAS in the pathogenesis of AD, not only because of its multiple aspects of participation, which may be accidental, but also because of the availability of RAS drugs, which can be reused as therapies of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinquan Li
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Weiting Xuan
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Dabao Chen
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Huawu Gao
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Institute of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| | - Guangyun Wang
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Institute of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| | - Qiaoru Guo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Wang
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Institute of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| | - Hang Song
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Institute of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| | - Biao Cai
- School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Institute of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nalivaeva NN, Turner AJ. Targeting amyloid clearance in Alzheimer's disease as a therapeutic strategy. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3447-3463. [PMID: 30710367 PMCID: PMC6715594 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide cascade has been at the heart of therapeutic developments in Alzheimer's disease (AD) research for more than 25 years, yet no successful drugs have reached the marketplace based on this hypothesis. Nevertheless, the genetic and other evidence remains strong, if not overwhelming, that Aβ is central to the disease process. Most attention has focused on the biosynthesis of Aβ from its precursor protein through the successive actions of the β- and γ-secretases leading to the development of inhibitors of these membrane proteases. However, the levels of Aβ are maintained through a balance of its biosynthesis and clearance, which occurs both through further proteolysis by a family of amyloid-degrading enzymes (ADEs) and by a variety of transport processes. The development of late-onset AD appears to arise from a failure of these clearance mechanisms rather than by overproduction of the peptide. This review focuses on the nature of these clearance mechanisms, particularly the various proteases known to be involved, and their regulation and potential as therapeutic targets in AD drug development. The majority of the ADEs are zinc metalloproteases [e.g., the neprilysin (NEP) family, insulin-degrading enzyme, and angiotensin converting enzymes (ACE)]. Strategies for up-regulating the expression and activity of these enzymes, such as genetic, epigenetic, stem cell technology, and other pharmacological approaches, will be highlighted. Modifiable physiological mechanisms affecting the efficiency of Aβ clearance, including brain perfusion, obesity, diabetes, and sleep, will also be outlined. These new insights provide optimism for future therapeutic developments in AD research. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia N. Nalivaeva
- School of Biomedical SciencesUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK
- Laboratory of Physiology and Pathology of CNSI.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of RASSt. PetersburgRussia
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Liu S, Ando F, Fujita Y, Liu J, Maeda T, Shen X, Kikuchi K, Matsumoto A, Yokomori M, Tanabe-Fujimura C, Shimokata H, Michikawa M, Komano H, Zou K. A clinical dose of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor and heterozygous ACE deletion exacerbate Alzheimer's disease pathology in mice. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:9760-9770. [PMID: 31072831 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is a strategy used worldwide for managing hypertension. In addition to converting angiotensin I to angiotensin II, ACE also converts neurotoxic β-amyloid protein 42 (Aβ42) to Aβ40. Because of its neurotoxicity, Aβ42 is believed to play a causative role in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), whereas Aβ40 has neuroprotective effects against Aβ42 aggregation and also against metal-induced oxidative damage. Whether ACE inhibition enhances Aβ42 aggregation or impairs human cognitive ability are very important issues for preventing AD onset and for optimal hypertension management. In an 8-year longitudinal study, we found here that the mean intelligence quotient of male, but not female, hypertensive patients taking ACE inhibitors declined more rapidly than that of others taking no ACE inhibitors. Moreover, the sera of all AD patients exhibited a decrease in Aβ42-to-Aβ40-converting activity compared with sera from age-matched healthy individuals. Using human amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice, we found that a clinical dose of an ACE inhibitor was sufficient to increase brain amyloid deposition. We also generated human amyloid precursor protein/ACE+/- mice and found that a decrease in ACE levels promoted Aβ42 deposition and increased the number of apoptotic neurons. These results suggest that inhibition of ACE activity is a risk factor for impaired human cognition and for triggering AD onset.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuyu Liu
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan.,the Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience, Shenyang Medical College, Shenyang 110034, China
| | - Fujiko Ando
- the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Aichi Shukutoku University, Nagakute 480-1146, Japan
| | - Yu Fujita
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Junjun Liu
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Tomoji Maeda
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Xuefeng Shen
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Kota Kikuchi
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Aoi Matsumoto
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Mirai Yokomori
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Chiaki Tanabe-Fujimura
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Shimokata
- the Graduate School of Nutritional Sciences, Nagoya University of Arts and Sciences, Nisshin 470-0196, Japan, and
| | - Makoto Michikawa
- the Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya 467-8601, Japan
| | - Hiroto Komano
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan,
| | - Kun Zou
- From the Department of Neuroscience, School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba 028-3694, Japan, .,the Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya 467-8601, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Asraf K, Torika N, Apte RN, Fleisher-Berkovich S. Microglial Activation Is Modulated by Captopril: in Vitro and in Vivo Studies. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:116. [PMID: 29765306 PMCID: PMC5938337 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is an important peripheral system involved in homeostasis modulation, with angiotensin II (Ang II) serving as the main effector hormone. The main enzyme involved in Ang II formation is angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). ACE inhibitors (ACEIs) such as captopril (Cap) are predominantly used for the management of hypertension. All of the components of the RAS have also been identified in brain. Centrally located hormones such as Ang II can induce glial inflammation. Moreover, in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) models, where glial inflammation occurs and is thought to contribute to the propagation of the disease, increased levels of Ang II and ACE have been detected. Interestingly, ACE overexpression in monocytes, migrating to the brain was shown to prevent AD cognitive decline. However, the specific effects of captopril on glial inflammation and AD remain obscure. In the present study, we investigated the effect of captopril, given at a wide concentration range, on inflammatory mediators released by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated glia. In the current study, both primary glial cells and the BV2 microglial cell line were used. Captopril decreased LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) release from primary mixed glial cells as well as regulating inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression, NO, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and induced interleukin-10 (IL-10) production by BV2 microglia. We further obtained data regarding intranasal effects of captopril on cortical amyloid β (Aβ) and CD11b expression in 5XFAD cortex over three different time periods. Interestingly, we noted decreases in Aβ burden in captopril-treated mice over time which was paralleled by increased microglial activation. These results thus shed light on the neuroprotective role of captopril in AD which might be related to modulation of microglial activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keren Asraf
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| | - Nofar Torika
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| | - Ron N Apte
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| | - Sigal Fleisher-Berkovich
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| |
Collapse
|