General Case Simulation Instruction of Generalized Housekeeping Skills in Blind, Multihandicapped Adults

This study was conducted to determine whether general case simulation instruction on a selected teaching sample of housekeeping skills, which sampled the stimulus and response variation of rooms in an office building, resulted in generalized performance to three other examples. A single subject, multiple base line across subjects design was used. After a brief base-line probe phase, general case simulation instruction was introduced sequentially to three participants. Intermittent probes in three other untrained settings were conducted to assess generalization. Data from all three participants indicate that generalization did occur from general case training to the untrained probe settings. They showed an average increase of 45 percent for participant one after six training sessions, an average increase of 58 percent after four training sessions for participant two, and after only one training session, an average of 37 percent for participant three. Degree of generalization was inversely related to the severity and complexity of participant disability. Implications for the development of generalized competitive job skills of people with severe handicaps are discussed.

Use of General Case Instruction with Visually Impaired, Multiply Handicapped Adults in the Sorting of National Zip Codes

The purpose of the study was to determine whether the acquisition of independent sorting skills on a representative sample of the first two digits in national zip codes (zip code prefixes) results in generalized independent sorting of all 100 national zip code prefixes. It was found that two of the three visually impaired, mentally retarded subjects demonstrated improved generalized performance on probes of their nontrained ability to sort 100 national zip code prefixes during and following instruction on 9 representative prefixes.

Discrimination and Generalization of Negatively-Reinforced Mands in Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

In this study, we extended the literature on the generalization of negatively-reinforced mands in three young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). First, we used example and nonexample stimuli embedded in mand training to teach a new, socially appropriate, negatively-reinforced mand to reject unpreferred food items while continuously assessing mand discrimination. Second, we evaluated the discriminated generalization of the newly acquired mand by using untrained example and nonexample stimuli. Finally, we conducted maintenance probes to examine if the new, discriminated mand occurred over time in the absence of training. Results suggest that our mand training produced acquisition of a discriminated negatively-reinforced mand in all three children. Data indicate that the newly acquired, discriminated mand generalized to untrained food items and was maintained after training was discontinued. We discuss the conceptual significance and clinical implications of using example and nonexample stimuli to produce acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of negatively-reinforced mands in young children with ASD and language delays.

A Comparison of General Case in Vivo and General Case Simulation plus in Vivo Training

This study examined the relative effectiveness and efficiency of general case in vivo and general case simulation plus in vivo training in teaching six students with moderate and severe disabilities to purchase drink and food items in fast-food restaurants. General case in vivo training consisted of instruction in three fast-food restaurants located near the students' school. General case simulation plus in vivo training alternated classroom training with training in a single restaurant. Generalization was assessed in three novel restaurants. Results indicated that both strategies led to reliable performance in nontrained settings. However, students who received general case in vivo instruction required fewer training trials to criterion, made fewer errors to criterion, and required less training time to criterion than students who received general case simulation plus in vivo training. In addition, the overall costs of general case in vivo instruction were lower than the costs of the general case simulation plus in vivo training. The results are discussed in terms of the implications for teachers in designing instructional programs to teach generalized performance of community skills.

Community-Referenced Instruction: Research and Issues

This review addresses some of the more crucial teaching and learning issues that arise when community-referenced instruction is applied to persons with severe disabilities. These issues include environmental assessment, task analysis, trial sequencing, control, empirical and social validity, and measurement. A stimulus set of standards that emerged from the literature reviewed was presented to guide and evaluate future community-referenced research.

A Preliminary Investigation of IEP Quality and Content Associated with Placement in General Education versus Special Education Classes

An analysis was conducted of the quality and curriculum content of the individualized education programs (IEPs) written by 11 teachers for 22 students with severe disabilities who attended a special class program (two students per teacher). Differences were then analyzed between this first set of IEPs and subsequent IEPs written by the same teachers for the same 22 students following a change of placement from special classes to full-time membership in general education classrooms. IEP quality was evaluated on the basis of the degree to which educational objectives included seven components identified as indicators of best practices. Curriculum content areas included communication, social, motor, vocational, domestic, community, recreation/leisure, and academic. No difference was found in the curriculum content of the IEPs written for the students when they attended a special versus a general education class; however, there was a difference found in the quality of the IEP objectives, with higher scores for IEPs written for the students when they were full-time members of general education classes.

Using General-Case Instruction to Teach Spontaneous and Generalized Requests for Assistance to Learners with Severe Disabilities

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of general-case instruction on spontaneous and generalized requests for assistance by three adolescents with severe disabilities. The findings support the efficacy of the general-case approach in relation to using a single example to teach requests for help. The distinguishing aspect of the general-case phase was the variation in stimulus conditions that occurred across teaching opportunities. Results indicated that general-case instruction produced generalized requests for assistance with two of the three learners. The implications for using general-case procedures for teaching communicative interactions are discussed and future research areas are proposed.

The effects of instructional interventions related to street crossing and individuals with disabilities

Adequate street crossing skills reduce the risk of injury and increase the functional independence of individuals with disabilities. This paper reviews research involving instructional interventions for street crossings with individuals with disabilities. Eight studies were included. There was evidence individuals could be taught street crossings using classroom based interventions, roadside instruction, or virtual reality technology. Classroom based methods were successful when involving strategies which promoted generalization of skills. Task analysis found the steps involved in street crossing included: stopping at the curb, looking left and right, walking quickly, walking within the crosswalk, and continuing to look left and right. A variety of instructional strategies were used, but the small body of literature did not allow clear identification of superior strategies.

Teaching preschool children with disabilities to respond to the lures of strangers

An investigation was conducted to determine the effectiveness of a constant-time-delay procedure used in combination with multiple exemplars of strangers, lures, and sites to teach a generalized response to the lures of strangers to four preschool children with disabilities. Although the correct response was quickly acquired in the training site, the response failed to generalize to the probe sites until training was conducted in vivo. Instruction in vivo resulted in acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of the response to strangers' lures. Generalization occurred across probes with novel exemplars of lures, strangers, and sites.

Comparison of staff training strategies to promote generalized teaching skills

Two studies compared the effectiveness of different strategies for promoting generalization of staff skills in teaching self-care routines to clients with developmental disabilities. In Study 1, 9 direct-care staff members of group homes were trained sequentially through four conditions; (a) the provision of written instructions, (b) performance-based training using a single client program exemplar and simulated clients (single case training), (c) performance-based training using actual developmentally delayed clients as trainees (common stimuli training), and (d) performance-based training using multiple client program exemplars with simulated clients (general case training). The results indicated that staff members did not reach all generalization criteria until general case training was provided. Because staff members had been trained sequentially through several conditions in Study 1, a second study controlled for potential sequence effects. In Study 2, 7 staff members were trained using only the general case strategy after baseline. All staff members reached generalizations criteria with only general case training, replicating the findings of Study 1. Together, the two studies demonstrated that the general case training strategy was more effective at promoting generalized training effects across clients, settings, and client programs than other commonly used staff training approaches.

Discrimination training for persons with developmental disabilities: a comparison of the task demonstration model and the standard prompting hierarchy

A comparison was made between two procedures for teaching persons with severe handicaps: (a) the task demonstration model, which is based upon a fading procedure and general case programming, and (b) the standard prompting hierarchy, a least-to-most intrusive prompting procedure commonly used to teach these individuals. Five phases were used in comparing the procedures: pretesting, training, two generalization tests, and a 6-month maintenance test. Eight students learned two discrimination tasks by each procedure, with each task involving two- or three-digit numbers. Results showed that under the task demonstration model all 8 subjects had more unprompted correct responses (about 1.5 times as many) in training, all 8 subjects had fewer errors (about 0.6 times as many) in training, all 8 subjects had more correct responding in the generalization test with untrained stimuli in the training room, 6 of 8 subjects had more correct responding with untrained stimuli in another room, a 7th had equivalent amounts, and 7 of 8 subjects had more correct responding on a 6-month maintenance test. Thus, the task demonstration model proved superior to the standard prompting hierarchy in 29 of 32 tests of correct responding. Results are discussed in terms of implications for stimulus control training strategies.

Units of analysis in task-analytic research

We develop and discuss four criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of units of analysis for task-analytic research and suggest potential alternatives to the units of analysis currently used. Of the six solutions discussed, the most commonly used unit of analysis in current behavior analytic work, percentage correct, meets only one of the four criteria. Five alternative units of analysis are presented and evaluated: (a) percentage of opportunities to perform meeting criterion, (b) trials to criteria, (c) cumulative competent performances, (d) percentage correct with competent performance coded, and (e) percentage correct with competent performance coded and a grid showing performance on individual steps of the task analysis. Of the solutions evaluated, only one--percentage correct with competent performance coded and a task analysis grid--met all four criteria.

Response variation and the generalization of a dressing skill: comparison of single instance and general case instruction

Two, identical multiple-baseline-across-subjects designs were used to compare the effects of single instance and general case instruction on the generalized dressing of youth and adults with severe mental retardation. Performance across eight nontrained, probe shirts was used to assess generalization of the skill "putting on pullover shirts." Following training with a single shirt, subjects exhibited limited success with the eight nontrained shirts. Only after training with a set of shirts that sampled the range of stimulus and response variation for "putting on pullover shirts" was successful generalization observed. Results suggest that the response variations taught during general case instruction played a major role in improved performance across the nontrained shirts. Implications of the results are discussed for instruction in applied settings, and for research methodology in the analysis of generalization.