1
|
Cooper JM, Strayer DL. Multitasking Induced Contextual Blindness. HUMAN FACTORS 2024:187208241274040. [PMID: 39178389 DOI: 10.1177/00187208241274040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/25/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the impact of secondary task performance on contextual blindness arising from the suppression and masking of temporal and spatial sequence learning. BACKGROUND Dual-task scenarios can lead to a diminished ability to use environmental cues to guide attention, a phenomenon that is related to multitasking-induced inattentional blindness. This research aims to extend the theoretical understanding of how secondary tasks can impair attention and memory processes in sequence learning and access. METHOD We conducted three experiments. In Experiment 1, we used a serial reaction time task to investigate the impact of a secondary tone counting task on temporal sequence learning. In Experiment 2, we used a contextual cueing task to examine the effects of dual-task performance on spatial cueing. In Experiment 3, we integrated and extended these concepts to a simulated driving task. RESULTS Across the experiments, the performance of a secondary task consistently suppressed (all experiments) and masked task learning (experiments 1 and 3). In the serial response and spatial search tasks, dual-task conditions reduced the accrual of sequence knowledge and impaired knowledge expression. In the driving simulation, similar patterns of learning suppression from multitasking were also observed. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that secondary tasks can significantly suppress and mask sequence learning in complex tasks, leading to a form of contextual blindness characterized by impairments in the ability to use environmental cues to guide attention and anticipate future events. APPLICATION These findings have implications for both skill acquisition and skilled performance in complex domains such as driving, aviation, manufacturing, and human-computer interaction.
Collapse
|
2
|
Gaymard S, Besson, T., Bessin, M., Rouzier, A., Carré, J., Robert, V., Delaunay, S., Maillet. L’utilisation du téléphone au volant chez les commerciaux hommes et femmes : habitudes de conduite et prises de risque. PERSPECTIVES INTERDISCIPLINAIRES SUR LE TRAVAIL ET LA SANTÉ 2020. [DOI: 10.4000/pistes.6541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
3
|
Frank DJ, Macnamara BN. How do task characteristics affect learning and performance? The roles of simultaneous, interactive, and continuous tasks. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2020; 85:2364-2397. [PMID: 32748061 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-020-01394-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Why are some tasks more difficult to learn than others? Hoffman et al. (Accelerated expertise: training for high proficiency in a complex world. Psychology Press, New York, 2014) hypothesized that certain task characteristics-termed "dimensions of difficulty"-hindered learning and performance. Previously, we tested two dimensions: consistent vs. variably mapped and static vs. dynamic. Here, we test three more dimensions of difficulty: sequential vs. simultaneous, discrete vs. continuous, and separable vs. interactive. In each study, we manipulate a single task feature (dimension of difficulty) while holding all others constant. Tasks with continuous (rather than discrete) features slowed participants' performance but did not impair learning. Learning and performance were unimpaired in tasks with interactive (rather than largely separable) processes. By contrast, we found strong evidence that simultaneous tasks (i.e., those that demand multitasking) inhibit learning, slow performance, and increase task errors. Importantly, this occurred in the absence of perceptual and mechanical bottlenecks present in most other studies of multitasking. We also are the first to examine simultaneity on learning a new task while controlling for other dimensions of difficulty. We discuss the potential impact of these results on current theory and application to real-world domains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Frank
- Department of Psychology and Special Education, Texas A&M University Commerce, Binnion Hall 218, P.O. Box 3011, Commerce, TX, 75429, USA. .,Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
| | - Brooke N Macnamara
- Department of Psychology and Special Education, Texas A&M University Commerce, Binnion Hall 218, P.O. Box 3011, Commerce, TX, 75429, USA.,Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ellmers TJ, Cocks AJ, Doumas M, Williams AM, Young WR. Gazing into Thin Air: The Dual-Task Costs of Movement Planning and Execution during Adaptive Gait. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166063. [PMID: 27824937 PMCID: PMC5100909 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of increased cognitive load on visual search behavior and measures of gait performance during locomotion. Also, we investigated how personality traits, specifically the propensity to consciously control or monitor movements (trait movement ‘reinvestment’), impacted the ability to maintain effective gaze under conditions of cognitive load. Healthy young adults traversed a novel adaptive walking path while performing a secondary serial subtraction task. Performance was assessed using correct responses to the cognitive task, gaze behavior, stepping accuracy, and time to complete the walking task. When walking while simultaneously carrying out the secondary serial subtraction task, participants visually fixated on task-irrelevant areas ‘outside’ the walking path more often and for longer durations of time, and fixated on task-relevant areas ‘inside’ the walkway for shorter durations. These changes were most pronounced in high-trait-reinvesters. We speculate that reinvestment-related processes placed an additional cognitive demand upon working memory. These increased task-irrelevant ‘outside’ fixations were accompanied by slower completion rates on the walking task and greater gross stepping errors. Findings suggest that attention is important for the maintenance of effective gaze behaviors, supporting previous claims that the maladaptive changes in visual search observed in high-risk older adults may be a consequence of inefficiencies in attentional processing. Identifying the underlying attentional processes that disrupt effective gaze behaviour during locomotion is an essential step in the development of rehabilitation, with this information allowing for the emergence of interventions that reduce the risk of falling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toby J. Ellmers
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Adam J. Cocks
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michail Doumas
- School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - A. Mark Williams
- College of Heath, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - William R. Young
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Human factors/ergonomics professionals regularly study the situation awareness (SA) problems of pilots, air traffic controllers, automobile drivers, power plant workers, ambulance dispatchers, urban search and rescue professionals, and unmanned vehicle operators, to mention a few. The challenge has been to define SA operationally and devise measurement strategies that focus on attention and recall on the one hand and relevant actions on the other. Although there have been many successes, challenges remain. This review is organized in three parts. Under “What?” we discuss definitions of SA, their interpretations in terms of human information processing and ecological psychological theories, as well as techniques for measuring SA. Under “So what?” we introduce SA applications'information requirements, technological tools, and training systems'that support the way people work and live. Finally, under “Now what?” we discuss future directions for SA research.
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Twenty-eight empirical studies provided data for four meta-analyses on visual detection and discrimination inflight-decktypical tasks, at varying degrees of eccentricity relative to a central point of interest. The data revealed a general trend for poorer performance at increasing eccentricity, and greater degradation when eye movements were prevented. The data failed to reveal a systematic discontinuity of performance degradation beyond 15°, which defines the typical “primary field of view” in the cockpit, but they reveal a 14% miss rate and 21% discrimination error rate at that location. The results also point to the profound influence of moderator variables of expectancy and salience on eccentric visual performance.
Collapse
|
7
|
Strayer DL, Fisher DL. SPIDER: A Framework for Understanding Driver Distraction. HUMAN FACTORS 2016; 58:5-12. [PMID: 26715688 DOI: 10.1177/0018720815619074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective was to identify key cognitive processes that are impaired when drivers divert attention from driving. BACKGROUND Driver distraction is increasingly recognized as a significant source of injuries and fatalities on the roadway. METHOD/RESULTS A "SPIDER" model is developed that identifies key cognitive processes that are impaired when drivers divert attention from driving. SPIDER is an acronym standing for scanning, predicting, identifying, decision making, and executing a response. CONCLUSION When drivers engage in secondary activities unrelated to the task of driving, SPIDER-related processes are impaired, situation awareness is degraded, and the ability to safely operate a motor vehicle may be compromised. APPLICATION The pattern of interference helps to illuminate the sources of driver distraction and may help guide the integration of new technology into the automobile.
Collapse
|
8
|
Strayer DL, Turrill J, Cooper JM, Coleman JR, Medeiros-Ward N, Biondi F. Assessing Cognitive Distraction in the Automobile. HUMAN FACTORS 2015; 57:1300-1324. [PMID: 26534847 DOI: 10.1177/0018720815575149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective was to establish a systematic framework for measuring and understanding cognitive distraction in the automobile. BACKGROUND Driver distraction from secondary in-vehicle activities is increasingly recognized as a significant source of injuries and fatalities on the roadway. METHOD Across three studies, participants completed eight in-vehicle tasks commonly performed by the driver of an automobile. Primary, secondary, subjective, and physiological measures were collected and integrated into a cognitive distraction scale. RESULTS In-vehicle activities, such as listening to the radio or an audio book, were associated with a low level of cognitive workload; the conversation activities of talking to a passenger in the vehicle or conversing with a friend on a handheld or hands-free cell phone were associated with a moderate level of cognitive workload; and using a speech-to-text interfaced e-mail system involved a high level of cognitive workload. CONCLUSION The research established that there are significant impairments to driving that stem from the diversion of attention from the task of operating a motor vehicle and that the impairments to driving are directly related to the cognitive workload of these in-vehicle activities. Moreover, the adoption of voice-based systems in the vehicle may have unintended consequences that adversely affect traffic safety. APPLICATION These findings can be used to help inform scientifically based policies on driver distraction, particularly as they relate to cognitive distraction stemming from the diversion of attention to other concurrent activities in the vehicle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David L Strayer
- University of Utah, Salt Lake CityPrecision Driving Research, Salt Lake City, UtahUniversity of Utah, Salt Lake CityUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-ChampaignUniversity of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bernstein JJ, Bernstein J. Texting at the light and other forms of device distraction behind the wheel. BMC Public Health 2015; 15:968. [PMID: 26407864 PMCID: PMC4584002 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-2343-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cell phones are a well-known source of distraction for drivers, and owing to the proliferation of text messaging services, web browsers and interactive apps, modern devices provide ever-increasing temptation for drivers to take their eyes off the road. Although it is probably obvious that drivers' manual engagement of a device while their vehicles are in motion is potentially dangerous, it may not be clear that such engagement when the vehicle is at rest (an activity broadly labeled "texting at the light") can also impose risks. For one thing, a distracted driver at rest may fail to respond quickly to sudden changes in road conditions, such as an ambulance passing through. In addition, texting at the light may decrease so-called "situational awareness" and lead to driving errors even after the device is put down. To our knowledge, the direct comparison of the rate of device usage by drivers at rest with the rate of device usage by drivers in motion has not been reported. METHODS We collected information on 2000 passenger vehicles by roadside observation. For the first group of 1000 passenger vehicles stopped at a traffic light, device usage ("texting", "talking", "none"), gender of the driver, vehicle type, seatbelt usage and presence of front seat passengers were recorded. For a second set of 1000 vehicles in motion, device usage alone was noted. Statistical significance for differences in rates was assessed with the chi-square test. RESULTS We found that 3 % of drivers in motion were texting and 5 % were talking. Among the stopped drivers, 14.5 % were texting and 6.3 % were talking. In the stopped-vehicle set, gender and vehicle type were not associated with significant differences in device usage, but having a front seat passenger and using seatbelts were. CONCLUSIONS Device usage is markedly higher among drivers temporarily at rest compared with those in motion, and the presence of a front seat passenger, who may help alleviate boredom or reprimand bad behavior, is associated with lower device usage rates among vehicles stopped at a light. These observations may help identify suitable steps to decrease distracted driving and thereby minimize traffic trauma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph Bernstein
- 424 Stemmler Hall, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6081, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Driver distraction is increasingly recognized as a significant source of injuries and fatalities on the roadway. Distraction can arise from visual/manual interference, for example, when a driver takes his or her eyes off the road to interact with a device. Impairments also come from cognitive sources of distraction when attention is withdrawn from the processing of information necessary for the safe operation of a motor vehicle. In the latter case, the driver’s eyes may be on the roadway and his or her hands on the steering wheel, but he or she may not be attending to the information critical for safe driving. Concern over distracted driving is growing as more and more wireless devices are being integrated into the vehicle. We developed and validated a metric of distraction associated with the diversion of attention from driving. Our studies show that the distraction potential can be reliably measured, that cognitive workload systematically varies as a function of the secondary task performed by the driver, and that some activities, particularly newer voice-based interactions in the vehicle, are associated with surprisingly high levels of mental workload. Changing the culture of distracted driving will require a combination of scientifically based education concerning the hazards of inattention, regulations that target the root causes of distraction, and enforcement of the distracted driving laws.
Collapse
|
11
|
Garrison TM, Williams CC. Impact of Relevance and Distraction on Driving Performance and Visual Attention in a Simulated Driving Environment. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.2917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teena M. Garrison
- Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems; Mississippi State University; Starkville, Mississippi; USA
| | - Carrick C. Williams
- Department of Psychology and Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems; Mississippi State University; Starkville, Mississippi; USA
| |
Collapse
|