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Begum R, Hasan M, Akter S, Rahman M. Fortified edible oils in Bangladesh: A study on vitamin A fortification and physicochemical properties. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25489. [PMID: 38356593 PMCID: PMC10864982 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Food fortification has always been an effective and proven practice for eradicating various nutrient deficiencies in Bangladesh. This study investigated different quality parameters of three types (soybean, sunflower, and palm) of extensively consumed fortified edible oils in Bangladesh. Vitamin A analysis has shown that the vitamin A fortification level of most of the oil brands (73 %) did not comply with the Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institution (BSTI) standards (1.5-3.0 mg/100 g). Vitamin A contents of soybean, sunflower, and palm oil brands ranged from 0.13 to 2.06, 0.92-1.34, and 0.99-1.31 mg/100 g, respectively. Inter-brand values of vitamin A were also significantly different (p < 0.05). The majority of the samples were found to be within the acceptable ranges of Codex and BSTI, taking into account the significant chemical quality parameters for soybean, sunflower, and palm oil, such as acid value (0.31-0.93, 0.31-0.56, 0.39-0.81 mg KOH/g), free fatty acid (0.15-0.46, 0.15-0.28, 0.2-0.41 %), saponification (188.64-196.35, 186.53-188, 197.05-199.86 mg KOH/g), and peroxide values (0.06-2.9, 0.65-1.58, 1.35-1.75 meq O2/kg) respectively. All the brands' physical quality parameters (density, specific gravity, pH, viscosity, smoke point, color, and RI) complied with Codex standards. Various physical and chemical quality parameters were analyzed for significant correlations at 0.01 and 0.05 levels of significance. Remarkably, significant correlations were found between vitamin A and peroxide value (p < 0.01), iodine value and viscosity (p < 0.01), saponification value and viscosity (p < 0.01), pH and viscosity (p < 0.01), and saponification value and pH (p < 0.05). In conclusion, although the vitamin A status of most of the fortified edible oil brands was poor, the key quality indicators (except iodine value) of most of the oils were within the Codex and BSTI standard limits and were acceptable for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rokeya Begum
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh
| | - MdRakibul Hasan
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh
| | - Shamoli Akter
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh
| | - MdNannur Rahman
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh
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Hasan R, Begum R, Huq AO, Rahman N, Akter S, Khan SH, Islam F. Development of normal phase HPLC based method for the determination of retinyl palmitate in fortified edible oils. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2022.2151618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rakibul Hasan
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Bangladesh
- Department of Public Health Nutrition, Primeasia University, Banani, Bangladesh
| | - Rokeya Begum
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Bangladesh
| | - A.K. Obidul Huq
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Bangladesh
| | - Nannur Rahman
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Bangladesh
| | - Shamoli Akter
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Bangladesh
| | - Shahinul Haque Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Bangladesh University of Health Sciences (BUHS), Bangladesh
| | - Faridul Islam
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Begum R, Rahman N, Hasan R, Jamil Y, Anjom Tamanna S, Islam R. Vitamin A Fortified Edible Oils and Rice: The Knowledge Level and Consumption Rate among Different Place of Residences in Tangail District, Bangladesh. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 2021; 67:13-20. [PMID: 33642460 DOI: 10.3177/jnsv.67.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A population based cross-sectional study was conducted in four residential areas of Tangail Sadar Upazila, Bangladesh aiming to explore the knowledge about vitamin A fortified edible oils and rice as well as the their consumption rate. A total of 400 participants were randomly selected. Data were collected through face to face interviews. Only 15.0% and 3.5% participants had knowledge about vitamin A fortified edible oils and rice respectively. Precisely vitamin A fortified edible oils knowledge level was found inferior in rural (11.7%) and slum (0%) than urban (48.3%) and semi-urban (40.0%) participants. Knowledge about vitamin A fortified rice was found higher in urban (78.6%) than rural (14.3%) and slum (0%) participants. Most of the participants received knowledge through advertisements (N=45 and N=12 for fortified oils and rice respectively). Maximum participants (62.3%) did not consume vitamin A fortified edible oils and consumption rate in rural (11.8%) and slum (10.2%) areas were poorer than urban (53.5%) and semi-urban (24.4%) areas. Consumption rate of vitamin A fortified rice was found nil in all the study areas. Lack of knowledge about vitamin A fortified rice and oils accounted solely for poor consumption. Knowledge level about vitamin A fortified edible oils and rice and consumption rate were found statistically significantly (p<0.05) with participant's place of residences, education level and monthly income. Finally, this study indicates that the overall knowledge level and consumption rate of vitamin A fortified edible oils and rice is poor especially in rural and slum populations in Tangail Sadar Upazila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rokeya Begum
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
| | - Nannur Rahman
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chinese University of Hong Kong
| | - Rakibul Hasan
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
| | - Yusuf Jamil
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
| | - Sanjida Anjom Tamanna
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
| | - Robiul Islam
- Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science, Faculty of Life Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
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Raghavan R, Aaron GJ, Nahar B, Knowles J, Neufeld LM, Rahman S, Mondal P, Ahmed T. Household coverage of vitamin A fortification of edible oil in Bangladesh. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0212257. [PMID: 30943194 PMCID: PMC6447147 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0212257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mandatory fortification of edible oil (soybean and palm) with vitamin A was decreed in Bangladesh in 2013. Yet, there is a dearth of data on the availability and consumption of vitamin A fortifiable oil at household level across population sub-groups. To fill this gap, our study used a nationally representative survey in Bangladesh to assess the purchase of fortifiable edible oil among households and project potential vitamin A intake across population sub-groups. Data is presented by strata, age range and poverty-the factors that potentially influence oil coverage. Across 1,512 households, purchase of commercially produced fortifiable edible oil was high (87.5%). Urban households were more likely to purchase fortifiable oil (94.0%) than households in rural low performing (79.7%) and rural other strata (88.1%) (p value: 0.01). Households in poverty were less likely to purchase fortifiable oil (82.1%) than households not in poverty (91.4%) (p <0.001). Projected estimates suggested that vitamin A fortified edible oil would at least partially meet daily vitamin A estimated average requirement (EAR) for the majority of the population. However, certain population sub-groups may still have vitamin A intake below the EAR and alternative strategies may be applied to address the vitamin A needs of these vulnerable sub-groups. This study concludes that a high percentage of Bangladeshi population across different sub-groups have access to fortifiable edible oil and further provides evidence to support mandatory edible oil fortification with vitamin A in Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramkripa Raghavan
- Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), Geneva, Switzerland
- Center on the Early Life Origins of Disease, Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States of America
| | - Grant J. Aaron
- Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Baitun Nahar
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Jacky Knowles
- Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Prasenjit Mondal
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tahmeed Ahmed
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh
- James P. Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Silalahi DKN, Yuliyanti D, da Silva M, Christianti I, Mulyono K, Wassell P. The stability of vitamin A in fortified palm olein during extended storage and thermal treatment. Int J Food Sci Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.13462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dewi Kristina Natalia Silalahi
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
| | - Dewi Yuliyanti
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
| | - Monica da Silva
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
| | - Isti Christianti
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
| | - Karyanto Mulyono
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
| | - Paul Wassell
- Sinarmas agribusiness and food; R&D PT; SMART Tbk; Marunda center; Blok D1, Desa Segara Makmur; Kec. Tarumajaya Jawa Barat Indonesia
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Pignitter M, Hernler N, Zaunschirm M, Kienesberger J, Somoza MM, Kraemer K, Somoza V. Evaluation of Palm Oil as a Suitable Vegetable Oil for Vitamin A Fortification Programs. Nutrients 2016; 8:nu8060378. [PMID: 27338464 PMCID: PMC4924219 DOI: 10.3390/nu8060378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fortification programs are considered to be an effective strategy to mitigate vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk. Fortified vegetable oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids were shown to be prone to oxidation, leading to limited vitamin A stability. Thus, it was hypothesized that fortified oils consisting of mainly saturated fatty acids might enhance the stability of vitamin A. Mildly (peroxide value: 1.0 meq O2/kg) and highly (peroxide value: 7.5 meq O2/kg) oxidized palm oil was stored, after fortification with 60 International Units/g retinyl palmitate, in 0.5 L transparent polyethylene terephthalate bottles under cold fluorescent lighting (12 h/day) at 32 °C for 57 days. An increase of the peroxide value by 15 meq O2/kg, which was also reflected by a decrease of α-tocopherol congener by 15%–18%, was determined independent of the initial rancidity. The oxidative deterioration of the highly oxidized palm oil during storage was correlated with a significant 46% decline of the vitamin A content. However, household storage of mildly oxidized palm oil for two months did not induce any losses of vitamin A. Thus, mildly oxidized palm oil may be recommended for vitamin A fortification programs, when other sources of essential fatty acids are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Pignitter
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Natalie Hernler
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Mathias Zaunschirm
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Julia Kienesberger
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Mark Manuel Somoza
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
| | - Klaus Kraemer
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
- Sight and Life, Kaiseraugst 4303, Switzerland.
| | - Veronika Somoza
- Department of Nutritional and Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria.
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Hemery YM, Fontan L, Moench-Pfanner R, Laillou A, Berger J, Renaud C, Avallone S. Influence of light exposure and oxidative status on the stability of vitamins A and D₃ during the storage of fortified soybean oil. Food Chem 2015; 184:90-8. [PMID: 25872430 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Food fortification is implemented to address vitamins A and D deficiencies in numerous countries. The stability of vitamins A and D3 was assessed during a two-month period reproducing the usual oil storage conditions before sale to consumers. Soybean oils with different oxidative status and vitamin E contents were stored in the dark, semi-dark, or exposed to natural light. Lipid peroxidation took place after 3 weeks of storage in dark conditions. After 2 months, the vitamin A and D3 losses reached 60-68% and 61-68%, respectively, for oils exposed to natural light, and 32-39% and 24-44% in semi-dark conditions. The determining factors of vitamin A and D3 losses were (in decreasing order) the storage time, the exposure to light and the oxidative status of the oil, whereas vitamin E content had a protective role. Improving these parameters is thus essential to make vitamins A and D fortification in oils more efficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youna M Hemery
- Institute of Research for Development (IRD), UMR 204 Prevention of Malnutrition and Associated Pathologies (NUTRIPASS), IRD/Univ. Montpellier 1/Univ. Montpellier 2/SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - Laura Fontan
- Institute of Research for Development (IRD), UMR 204 Prevention of Malnutrition and Associated Pathologies (NUTRIPASS), IRD/Univ. Montpellier 1/Univ. Montpellier 2/SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Arnaud Laillou
- UNICEF, Maternal Child Health and Nutrition Section, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Jacques Berger
- Institute of Research for Development (IRD), UMR 204 Prevention of Malnutrition and Associated Pathologies (NUTRIPASS), IRD/Univ. Montpellier 1/Univ. Montpellier 2/SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - Cécile Renaud
- Institute of Research for Development (IRD), UMR 204 Prevention of Malnutrition and Associated Pathologies (NUTRIPASS), IRD/Univ. Montpellier 1/Univ. Montpellier 2/SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - Sylvie Avallone
- Montpellier SupAgro, UMR 204 Prevention of Malnutrition and Associated Pathologies (NUTRIPASS), IRD/Univ. Montpellier 1/Univ. Montpellier 2/SupAgro, Montpellier, France.
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Vitamin A-fortified cooking oil reduces vitamin A deficiency in infants, young children and women: results from a programme evaluation in Indonesia. Public Health Nutr 2015; 18:2511-22. [PMID: 25591926 DOI: 10.1017/s136898001400322x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess oil consumption, vitamin A intake and retinol status before and a year after the fortification of unbranded palm oil with retinyl palmitate. DESIGN Pre-post evaluation between two surveys. SETTING Twenty-four villages in West Java. SUBJECTS Poor households were randomly sampled. Serum retinol (adjusted for subclinical infection) was analysed in cross-sectional samples of lactating mothers (baseline n 324/endline n 349), their infants aged 6-11 months (n 318/n 335) and children aged 12-59 months (n 469/477), and cohorts of children aged 5-9 years (n 186) and women aged 15-29 years (n 171), alongside food and oil consumption from dietary recall. RESULTS Fortified oil improved vitamin A intakes, contributing on average 26 %, 40 %, 38 %, 29 % and 35 % of the daily Recommended Nutrient Intake for children aged 12-23 months, 24-59 months, 5-9 years, lactating and non-lactating women, respectively. Serum retinol was 2-19 % higher at endline than baseline (P<0·001 in infants aged 6-11 months, children aged 5-9 years, lactating and non-lactating women; non-significant in children aged 12-23 months; P=0·057 in children aged 24-59 months). Retinol in breast milk averaged 20·5 μg/dl at baseline and 32·5 μg/dl at endline (P<0·01). Deficiency prevalence (serum retinol <20 μg/dl) was 6·5-18 % across groups at baseline, and 0·6-6 % at endline (P≤0·011). In multivariate regressions adjusting for socio-economic differences, vitamin A intake from fortified oil predicted improved retinol status for children aged 6-59 months (P=0·003) and 5-9 years (P=0·03). CONCLUSIONS Although this evaluation without a comparison group cannot prove causality, retinyl contents in oil, Recommended Nutrient Intake contributions and relationships between vitamin intake and serum retinol provide strong plausibility of oil fortification impacting vitamin A status in Indonesian women and children.
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Quality of vegetable oil prior to fortification is an important criteria to achieve a health impact. Nutrients 2014; 6:5051-60. [PMID: 25393689 PMCID: PMC4245579 DOI: 10.3390/nu6115051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Unbranded palm cooking oil has been fortified for several years and can be found in the market with different oxidation levels. This study aimed to investigate the stability and shelf life of unbranded, bulk, vitamin A-fortified palm oils with the most commonly observed oxidation levels in Indonesia. Three types of cooking oils were tested: (i) cooking oil with a peroxide value (PV) below 2 mEq O2/kg (PO1); (ii) cooking oil with a PV around 4 mEq O2/kg (PO2); and (iii) cooking oil with a PV around 9 mEq O2/kg (PO3). The oil shelf life was determined by using accelerated shelf life testing (ASLT), where the product was stored at 60, 75 and 90 °C, and then PV, free fatty acid and vitamin A concentration in the oil samples were measured. The results showed that PO1 had a shelf life of between 2–3 months, while PO2’s shelf life was a few weeks and PO3’s only a few days. Even given those varying shelf lives, the vitamin A loss in the oils was still acceptable, at around 10%. However, the short shelf life of highly oxidized cooking oil, such as PO3, might negatively impact health, due to the potential increase of free radicals of the lipid peroxidation in the oil. Based on the results, the Indonesian government should prohibit the sale of highly-oxidized cooking oil. In addition, government authorities should promote and endorse the fortification of only cooking oil with low peroxide levels to ensure that fortification is not associated with any health issues associated with high oxidation levels of the cooking oil.
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Moench-Pfanner R, Bloem MW. ASEAN: insights and considerations toward nutrition programs. Food Nutr Bull 2013; 34:S4-7. [PMID: 24049991 DOI: 10.1177/15648265130342s102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Regina Moench-Pfanner
- Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), 354 Tanglin Road, #03-13/14, Singapore 247672.
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Yang Z, Laillou A, Smith G, Schofield D, Moench-Pfanner R. A Review of Vitamin D Fortification: Implications for Nutrition Programming in Southeast Asia. Food Nutr Bull 2013; 34:S81-9. [DOI: 10.1177/15648265130342s110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Background Vitamin D is vital for bone health and has important roles in nonskeletal health and organ function. Most vitamin D is generated in the body by exposure to sunlight, with limited amounts added by the diet. Despite the presence of regular sunshine in Southeast Asia, vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency is being found there more commonly, primarily due to reduction of sunlight exposure as a result of lifestyle changes. Some of these lifestyle changes are unlikely to be reversed, and foods naturally containing vitamin D are not widely consumed, so fortification of foods with vitamin D may raise vitamin D status. Methods The literature database was searched for studies of vitamin D fortification, and we estimated potential vitamin D intakes from fortified vegetable oil. Results Almost all of the studies showed that circulating vitamin D (25-hydroxyvitamin D [(25OHD]) increased in a dose-dependent manner with increased intake of vitamin D–fortified foods. However, in a number of studies the additional intake was insufficient to increase vitamin D levels to 50 nmol/L. Vegetable oil fortified with vitamin D at a level of 10 μg/100 g could provide 3.9% to 21% of the Institute of Medicine Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) of vitamin D for adults in Southeast Asia. Conclusions Fortification of widely consumed foods, such as edible oil, with vitamin D could contribute to improved vitamin D status in Southeast Asian countries. Intake modeling studies should be conducted to calculate the resulting additional intakes, and fortification of additional foods should be considered. More nationally representative studies of vitamin D status in the region are urgently needed.
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