Atherosclerosis: A Classic Inflammatory Disease

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease due to a diet high in saturated fat, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, hypoglycemia, etc. mainly mediated by the infiltration of macrophage and T cells into the vascular wall. Once the endothelial is damaged monocytes penetrate the tissue and are transformed in scavenger cells. Upon stimulation of Th1 cells, a group of cytokines is released and contributes to the inflammatory response of atherosclerotic tissue. When macrophages proliferate they amplify inflammatory response through the secretion of growth factors and cytokines such as TNF and IL-1. In addition, chemokines such as RANTES and other C-C chemokines are generated, and matrix metalloprotinease 9 (MMP-9) are produced by activated monocytes. However, the immune system in atherosclerosis still remains unclear. Here, in this study we revisited the inter-relationship between atherosclerosis and inflammation.

Cholesterol: An Inflammatory Compound

Obesity is one of the main rising causes of health problems in modern society and is correlated to type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, heart disease and atherosclerosis. Bacterial products, endogenous substances such as oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) and heat shock proteins mediate activation of Toll-like receptors and reinforce the view that the innate immune system plays a key role in the genesis of atherosclerosis. In addition, natural killer T (NKT) cells respond to lipids presented via CD1d on APCs, and may also be able to affect atherosclerosis. All the main cell types involved in atherosclerosis such as endothelial cells, macrophages, T cells, smooth muscle cells and platelets express proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, CD4 ligation triggers the expression of adhesion molecules, cytokines and matrix metalloprotinease. IL-6 cytokines travels to the liver where it elicits acute phase response resolving in the release of serum amyloid-A C-reactive protein, fibrogen and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Therefore increasing body fat mass is associated with high levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 and TNF. In this study we revisit the interrelationship between fat and inflammation.

Cholesterol, Cytokines and Diseases

A high level of cholesterol is associated with obesity, cardiovascular diseases and atherosclerosis. Immune response in atherosclerosis is mediated by chemokines which attract monocytes, leading to the innate immune response characterised by the production of cytokines. The immunoregulatory cytokines are an important bridge between innate and adductive immunity. TH1 cytokines are involved as effector T cells in inflammatory response, while TH2 cytokines can be anti-inflammatory such as IL-10 and IL-4. It is well known that statins enhance the production of TH2 cytokines whereas the secretion of TH1 cytokines is suppressed. For this purpose, we studied the significance of anti-inflammatory effect and suppression of inflammation by statins. In this paper we revisited the role of cholesterol and cytokines IL-18, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α, interferon-γ, and chemokines in inflammatory diseases.

IL-31 a Th2 cytokine involved in immunity and inflammation

Cytokines are immunal regulatory proteins, however they also play a relevant role in inflammatory diseases. IL-31 is a newly discovered cytokine expressed primarily in TH2 cells, introduced by activated CD4+ T cells. IL-31 is capable of inducing chemokines and other cytokines in several inflammatory diseases via its surface receptor. This cytokine is also produced by mast cells and mast cell line, suggesting a role in allergic diseases. In this editorial we revisit the biological role of IL-31 in immunity and inflammation.

Vitamins and Mast Cells

The immune system is a highly complex, intricately regulated group of cells whose integrated function is essential to health. The mast cell inflammatory response is characterized by an early phase with massive discharge of mediators stored in cytoplasmic secretory granules. Through multigranular/compound exocytosis and a late phase that involves generation of arachidonic acid metabolites and de novo synthesis of cytokines/chemokines and growth factors. Vitamins have been shown to have a protective effect on the body's immune cells. Vitamin C and E are necessary in allergic disease treatment where mast cells are involved. In addition, ascorbic acid and pyridoxine are useful compounds for the treatment of inflammatory disorder of the respiratory airways. Here we revisited the inter-relationship between vitamins and mast cells.

Microarray Analysis of NF-κB Signaling Pathways in PBMC of Mice Infected by Trichinella Spiralis

The NF-κB pathway gene expression profiles were compared between 10, 20 and 39 days after Trichinella spiralis experimental infection in BALB/c mice. Out of 128 genes, 19 (14.8%) genes were present in non-infected and post-infected mice. The expression of 7 (36.8%) genes was downregulated 10 and 20 days post-infection while 3 (15.8%) genes were upregulated 39 days post-infection. The present study lists the candidate genes of the NF-κB signaling pathway that were commonly and differentially expressed between the specific points of T. spiralis infection, thus suggesting that these genes need to be further investigated to reveal the mechanism of the T. spiralis modulation of the NF-κB signaling pathways.