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Shi L, Brown NR, Reimer PJC. Exploring the metamnemonic and phenomenal differences between transitional and mundane events. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:1164-1181. [PMID: 38353909 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-024-01534-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
In two experiments, we systematically investigated the reasons why people retained certain autobiographical events in their memory, as well as the properties of those events and their predicted memorability. The first experiment used three methods (word-cued, free-recalled, and "memorable, interesting, and/or important") to retrieve event memories, and examined memories from three different time-frames: very recent (within past 7 days), recent (past 2 weeks and 6 months), and older events (at least one year). In addition, data were also collected for an important transitional event recently experienced by all participants ("starting university"). The results revealed that people had access to three types of event memories: memories for life transitions, memories for older distinctive events, and memories for recent mundane events. Participants reported remembering events that were distinctive, first-time experiences, emotionally impactful, or simply because they were recent. They also predicted that older events would be more resistant to forgetting than very recent and recent events. The second experiment examined participants' memorable and forgettable events, and found that memorable events tended to be older, while forgettable events were more likely to be recent. These findings suggested that many retrievable memorable autobiographical memories were neither important nor transitional in nature. The studies contribute to our understanding of people's metamnemonic knowledge about their autobiographical memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangzi Shi
- Department of Psychology, College of New Caledonia, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada.
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Norman R Brown
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Staniloiu A, Markowitsch HJ. Dissociative Amnesia: Remembrances Under Cover. Top Cogn Sci 2024. [PMID: 38728576 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The existence or questionability of "repressed memories" can be discussed as being a matter of definition. It seems, however, far-fetched to consider all "lost" memories as caused by encoding problems, brain damage, forgetfulness, failure to disclose events, and so on. We argue that dissociative amnesia (DA) (or "psychogenic amnesia," or "functional amnesia," or, as we favor to call it, "mnestic block syndrome") is caused by psychic alterations, but ultimately they can be traced to changes in the physiology of the brain, as we are of the opinion that all memory processes-positive or negative-alter brain functions, sometimes more permanently, sometimes transiently. We have proven this idea using functional imaging techniques, in particular fluoro-deoxy-d-glucose positron emission tomography. Having investigated dozens of patients with severe and long-lasting DA conditions, we believe it to be disrespectful to many (but not to all) of the affected patients to question their disease condition, which can be proven to be not caused by feigning, malingering, or direct brain damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelica Staniloiu
- Department of Physiological Psychology, University of Bielefeld
- Department of Psychology, University of Bucharest
- Psychiatry and Psychosomatics, Oberberg Clinic Hornberg
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Schemmel J, Datschewski-Verch L, Volbert R. Recovered memories in psychotherapy: a survey of practicing psychotherapists in Germany. Memory 2024; 32:176-196. [PMID: 38285181 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2024.2305870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
We report on a survey of 258 psychotherapists from Germany, focusing on their experiences with memory recovery in general, suggestive therapy procedures, evaluations of recovered memories, and memory recovery in training and guidelines. Most therapists (78%) reported instances of memory recovery encompassing negative and positive childhood experiences, but usually in a minority of patients. Also, most therapists (82%) reported to have held assumptions about unremembered trauma. Patients who held these beliefs were reported by 83% of the therapists. Both therapist and patient assumptions reportedly occurred in a minority of cases. Furthermore, 35% of participants had used therapeutic techniques at least once to recover presumed trauma memories. Only 10% reported assuming trauma in most patients and recovering purported memories in a majority of the attempts. A fifth believed memory recovery was a task of psychotherapy. This belief correlated with trauma assumptions, memory recovery attempts, and recovery frequency. Psychodynamic therapists more often reported to assume trauma behind symptoms and agreed more with problematic views on trauma and memory. No differences showed regarding suggestive behaviour in therapy. Most participants expressed interest in receiving support on dealing with memory recoveries. This interest should be taken up, ideally during therapist training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schemmel
- Department of Psychology, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
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Deferme D, Otgaar H, Dodier O, Körner A, Mangiulli I, Merckelbach H, Sauerland M, Panzavolta M, Loftus EF. Repressed Memories (of Sexual Abuse Against Minors) and Statutes of Limitations in Europe: Status Quo and Possible Alternatives. Top Cogn Sci 2024. [PMID: 38297503 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
One of the most heated debates in psychological science concerns the concept of repressed memory. We discuss how the debate on repressed memories continues to surface in legal settings, sometimes even to suggest avenues of legal reform. In the past years, several European countries have extended or abolished the statute of limitations for the prosecution of sexual crimes. Such statutes force legal actions (e.g., prosecution of sexual abuse) to be applied within a certain period of time. One of the reasons for the changes in statutes of limitations concerns the idea of repressed memory. We argue that from a psychological standpoint, these law reforms can be detrimental, particularly when they are done to endorse unfounded psychological theories. The validity of testimonies is compromised many years after the alleged facts, and abolishing the statute of limitations increases the chance that even more (false) recovered memories of abuse might enter the courtroom. We propose solutions to these changes such as establishing an independent expert committee evaluating claims of sexual abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
| | - Olivier Dodier
- Department of Psychology, Literature, Languages and History, Université de Nantes
| | - André Körner
- Hochschule für Gesundheit und Medizin, Medical School Berlin
| | - Ivan Mangiulli
- Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven
- Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro
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Ernst M, Beutel ME, Zwerenz R, Krakau L. Seeing the past in a new light: change in reports of childhood abuse and neglect before and after inpatient psychotherapy and its relevance for change in depression symptoms. Psychother Res 2023; 33:222-234. [PMID: 35790188 DOI: 10.1080/10503307.2022.2088313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE As changes in mental representations have been discussed as mechanisms of change in psychotherapy, the question arises whether recollections of childhood abuse and neglect are altered as well and how they relate to symptom changes. METHOD Individuals in psychosomatic inpatient treatment (N = 488, 60.5% women) filled out the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Changes in both were investigated with correlations and t-tests. Linear regression analysis was used to test whether CTQ changes predicted symptom changes. Network analysis was performed to ascertain structural connections between somatic and emotional-cognitive depression symptoms and CTQ subscales before and after treatment. RESULTS After treatment (duration in days: M = 52.83, SD = 20.94), patients reported fewer depression symptoms (d = 0.84), while CTQ scores increased slightly (d = 0.11). Changes in the CTQ predicted recovery from depression symptoms in a statistically significant way (β = .133, p = .001). We did not observe changes in the overall network structure between baseline assessment and discharge. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that the evaluation of past experiences can change over multiple weeks of psychotherapy. Further, these updated mental representations, indicating a greater recognition of past adversity, may contribute to symptom relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike Ernst
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Manfred E Beutel
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Zwerenz
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Lina Krakau
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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Cheit RE. Hyping Hypnosis: The Myth That Made Capturing the Friedmans Persuasive. J Trauma Dissociation 2022; 23:152-164. [PMID: 35132946 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2022.2028221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Those promoting the idea of "false memory syndrome" often invoke the specter of hypnosis to discredit those making accusations of sexual abuse and anyone they might have spoken to for investigative or therapeutic purposes. Capturing the Friedmans demonstrates that accusations of hypnosis have strong rhetorical value, even when they are not true. The film, classified as a documentary, tells the story of a family that is shattered when the father and son both plead guilty to sexually abusing boys in the after-school classes in their basement. Using tropes about hypnosis and misrepresenting the actual facts in the case, the movie persuaded many people that Jesse Friedman was actually innocent. A detailed Conviction Integrity Review that was prompted by the movie demonstrates that the conviction was sound, and that the movie is suspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross E Cheit
- Department of Political Science Watson Institute, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Dodier O, Lilienfeld SO, Loftus EF, Lynn SJ, Merckelbach H, Patihis L. Belief in Unconscious Repressed Memory Persists. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:454-460. [PMID: 33709851 PMCID: PMC7961636 DOI: 10.1177/1745691621990628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of converging research, we concluded that the controversial topic of unconscious blockage of psychological trauma (i.e., repressed memory) remains very much alive in clinical, legal, and academic contexts. In his commentary, Brewin (this issue, p. 443) conducted a cocitation analysis and concluded that scholars do not adhere to the concept of unconscious repression. Furthermore, he argued that previous survey research did not specifically assess unconscious repression. Here, we present critical evidence that runs counter to his claims. First, we inspected his cocitation analysis and found that some scholars support notions that are closely related to unconscious repression. Furthermore, we conducted another analysis on the basis of articles' similarity. Again, we found examples of scholars specifically endorsing unconscious repressed memories. Second, as opposed to what Brewin reports, recent survey research now exists that bears directly on people's beliefs regarding unconscious repression. This work reveals that large percentages of people (e.g., students and eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing [EMDR] clinicians) endorse the concept of unconscious repressed memories. The belief in unconscious repressed memory can continue to contribute to harmful consequences in clinical, legal, and academic domains (e.g., false accusations of abuse).
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London
- Leuvens Institute for Criminology, Faculty of Law, KU Leuven
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London
| | | | | | | | - Steven Jay Lynn
- Laboratory of Consciousness, Cognition, and Psychopathology, Binghamton University
| | - Harald Merckelbach
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section of Forensic Psychology, Maastricht University
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