Outcome of nerve transfers for traumatic complete brachial plexus avulsion: results of 28 patients by DASH and NRS questionnaires

Traumatic brachial plexus injury: proposal of an evaluation functional prognostic scoring system

BACKGROUND

Until now, a scoring system for determining functional prognosis in traumatic brachial plexus injury (TBPI) does not yet exist.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This research is a retrospective study with analytic design to find data for each parameter that affect the functional prognosis in patients with TBPI and assess these factors for comparison using the DASH score. The parameters that are proven to affect the functional prognosis included in a scoring system that we have designed.

RESULTS

It resulted that the functional prognosis of TBPI patients can be determined based on the mechanism of injury, initial pain scale, pain time, level of injury, time of surgery, and initial electromyography (EMG) result.

CONCLUSION

Based on the scoring system created in this study, we can conclude that the total score <15 has a good functional prognosis, while a score of ≥15 has a bad functional prognosis, with sensitivity and specificity of 76.6% and 70.2% respectively. This research is categorized as level 3 of evidence.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of patient-reported outcomes following nerve transfer surgery for brachial plexus injury

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the effect of nerve transfer surgery for brachial plexus injury (BPI) on patient-reported outcomes.

LITERATURE SURVEY

MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL were searched and screened in duplicate for relevant studies on September 25, 2019 and repeated June 24, 2020.

METHODOLOGY

The patient population included male and female patients who received nerve transfer surgery for BPI. Further inclusion criteria were: (1) all levels of evidence; (2) published in English; (3) conducted in humans; and (4) report of patient-reported outcome. Two reviewers independently abstracted data regarding injury type, surgical technique, surgical timing, follow-up duration, strength, and patient-reported outcome measures. Quality was assessed in duplicate using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies criteria.

SYNTHESIS

Twenty-one studies involving 464 participants were included in analyses. The mean age ± SD was 32.4 ± 1.8 (range: 5-77) and 89.2% of included participants were male. The mean time to surgery was 5.6 ± 0.6 months and the mean follow-up time was 48.1 ± 8.4 months. The most used patient-reported outcome was the Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH), where scores variably improved postoperatively, although the degree of disability remained high. Return to work was reported in five studies, with 66.0% of participants returning to work. Patient satisfaction was assessed in four studies with an overall satisfaction proportion of 64.0%. Pain was assessed in 12 studies using various measures. In studies reporting pain intensity postoperatively, 29.3% of patients were "pain-free" or had "no pain."

CONCLUSIONS

Patient-reported outcomes following nerve transfer for BPI are infrequently reported in the literature. Although patient-reported outcomes demonstrate variable postoperative improvement, there is evidence of ongoing limitations and postoperative DASH scores report a high degree of ongoing disability. Future studies with greater reporting as well as validation of patient-reported outcomes within BPI are warranted.

The Outcome of Neurotization of Brachial Plexus Injury in a Tertiary Centre: A Nine-Year Review

Introduction: In neurotization or nerve transfer, a healthy but less valuable nerve is transferred to re-innervate a more important motor territory that has lost its innervation through irreparable damage to its nerve.

Methodology: In this study, the outcomes of surgery were analyzed in relation to the muscle strength, range of motion of the upper limb, and functional outcome. The results were analyzed in 19 patients who were operated on between 2008 and 2016 with adequate follow-up. 

Result: Of the 19 patients (15 complete brachial plexus injuries and four incomplete brachial plexus injuries), 13 patients (68%) recovered partial function after the neurotization surgery. Shoulder abduction and elbow flexion were achieved in 11 patients (58%). Six of the 10 patients (32%) in complete pre-ganglionic brachial plexus injury had recovered partial function. Whereas five of the six patients (83%) in complete post-ganglionic had recovered partial function. In incomplete upper trunk brachial plexus injury, three of the four patients (75%) recovered some function after the neurotization surgery.

Conclusion: Nerve transfer is an effective treatment option to restore the function of the affected upper limb. Neurotization without intervening nerve graft shows better recovery. Earlier surgical intervention at a younger age can yield better outcomes.

Physical therapeutic treatment for traumatic brachial plexus injury in adults: A scoping review

Traumatic brachial plexus injury (BPI) is one of the most disabling injuries of the upper extremity, often requiring specialized treatment and a prolonged rehabilitation period. This scoping review was carried out to identify and describe the physical therapy modalities applied in the rehabilitation of adult individuals with BPI. Electronic databases, gray literature, and reference lists were searched, and studies meeting the following eligibility criteria were included: (a) interventions including any physical therapy modality; (b) individuals age ≥18 years old; and (c) a clinical diagnosis of BPI. The literature search yielded 681 articles of which 49 met the inclusion criteria and had their outcomes, treatment parameters, and the differences between conservative and pre- and postoperative treatment phases analyzed. The most commonly used physical therapy interventions were in the subfields of kinesiotherapy (ie, involving range of motion exercises, muscle stretching, and strengthening), electrothermal and phototherapy, manual therapy, and sensory re-education strategies. Although several physical therapy modalities were identified for the treatment of BPI in this scoping review, the combination of low levels of evidence and the identified gaps regarding the treatment parameters challenge the reproducibility of such treatments in clinical practice. Therefore, future controlled clinical trials with clearer treatment protocols for individuals with BPI are needed.

Rehabilitation of Upper Extremity Nerve Injuries Using Surface EMG Biofeedback: Protocols for Clinical Application

Motor recovery following nerve transfer surgery depends on the successful re-innervation of the new target muscle by regenerating axons. Cortical plasticity and motor relearning also play a major role during functional recovery. Successful neuromuscular rehabilitation requires detailed afferent feedback. Surface electromyographic (sEMG) biofeedback has been widely used in the rehabilitation of stroke, however, has not been described for the rehabilitation of peripheral nerve injuries. The aim of this paper was to present structured rehabilitation protocols in two different patient groups with upper extremity nerve injuries using sEMG biofeedback. The principles of sEMG biofeedback were explained and its application in a rehabilitation setting was described. Patient group 1 included nerve injury patients who received nerve transfers to restore biological upper limb function (n = 5) while group 2 comprised patients where biological reconstruction was deemed impossible and hand function was restored by prosthetic hand replacement, a concept today known as bionic reconstruction (n = 6). The rehabilitation protocol for group 1 included guided sEMG training to facilitate initial movements, to increase awareness of the new target muscle, and later, to facilitate separation of muscular activities. In patient group 2 sEMG biofeedback helped identify EMG activity in biologically "functionless" limbs and improved separation of EMG signals upon training. Later, these sEMG signals translated into prosthetic function. Feasibility of the rehabilitation protocols for the two different patient populations was illustrated. Functional outcome measures were assessed with standardized upper extremity outcome measures [British Medical Research Council (BMRC) scale for group 1 and Action Research Arm Test (ARAT) for group 2] showing significant improvements in motor function after sEMG training. Before actual movements were possible, sEMG biofeedback could be used. Patients reported that this visualization of muscle activity helped them to stay motivated during rehabilitation and facilitated their understanding of the re-innervation process. sEMG biofeedback may help in the cognitively demanding process of establishing new motor patterns. After standard nerve transfers individually tailored sEMG biofeedback can facilitate early sensorimotor re-education by providing visual cues at a stage when muscle activation cannot be detected otherwise.

The Vienna psychosocial assessment procedure for bionic reconstruction in patients with global brachial plexus injuries

Background

Global brachial plexopathies cause major sensory and motor deficits in the affected arm and hand. Many patients report of psychosocial consequences including chronic pain, decreased self-sufficiency, and poor body image. Bionic reconstruction, which includes the amputation and prosthetic replacement of the functionless limb, has been shown to restore hand function in patients where classic reconstructions have failed. Patient selection and psychological evaluation before such a life-changing procedure are crucial for optimal functional outcomes. In this paper we describe a psychosocial assessment procedure for bionic reconstruction in patients with complete brachial plexopathies and present psychosocial outcome variables associated with bionic reconstruction.

Methods

Between 2013 and 2017 psychosocial assessments were performed in eight patients with global brachial plexopathies. We conducted semi-structured interviews exploring the psychosocial adjustment related to the accident, the overall psychosocial status, as well as motivational aspects related to an anticipated amputation and expectations of functional prosthetic outcome. During the interview patients were asked to respond freely. Their answers were transcribed verbatim by the interviewer and analyzed afterwards on the basis of a pre-defined item scoring system. The interview was augmented by quantitative evaluation of self-reported mental health and social functioning (SF-36 Health Survey), body image (FKB-20) and deafferentation pain (VAS). Additionally, psychosocial outcome variables were presented for seven patients before and after bionic reconstruction.

Results

Qualitative data revealed several psychological stressors with long-term negative effects on patients with complete brachial plexopathies. 88% of patients felt functionally limited to a great extent due to their disability, and all of them reported constant, debilitating pain in the deafferented hand. After bionic reconstruction the physical component summary scale increased from 30.80 ± 5.31 to 37.37 ± 8.41 (p-value = 0.028), the mental component summary scale improved from 43.19 ± 8.32 to 54.76 ± 6.78 (p-value = 0.018). VAS scores indicative of deafferentation pain improved from 7.8 to 5.6 after prosthetic hand replacement (p-value = 0.018). Negative body evaluation improved from 60.71 ± 12.12 to 53.29 ± 11.03 (p-value = 0.075). Vital body dynamics increased from 38.57 ± 13.44 to 44.43 ± 16.15 (p-value = 0.109).

Conclusions

Bionic reconstruction provides hope for patients with complete brachial plexopathies who have lived without hand function for years or even decades. Critical patient selection is crucial and the psychosocial assessment procedure including a semi-structured interview helps identify unresolved psychological issues, which could preclude or delay bionic reconstruction. Bionic reconstruction improves overall quality of life, restores an intact self-image and reduces deafferentation pain.

A new model for the study of neuropathic pain after brachial plexus injury

The study was to introduce a new and reliable behavioral model of upper trunk of brachial plexus avulsion for the study of persistent neuropathic pain. 60 rats were divided into three groups randomly: upper trunk of brachial plexus avulsion (UTBPA) group (20), global brachial plexus avulsion (GBPA) group (20), and sham- operated group (20). The animals were tested for behavioral responsiveness before surgeries and 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 56, 84days after surgeries. The injured level of spinal cord was resected and the sections were processed for GFAP (astrocyte) and Iba1 (microglia) immunohistochemistry 3 weeks after surgeries. The UTBPA group developed significant signs both of mechanical and cold hypersensitivity, which matched the immunohistochemistry result, as well as the nature of avulsion was close to the clinical type of injury, the UTBPA group could be used as a suitable and effective persistent neuropathic pain model following brachial plexus injury.

Mechanisms controlling neuromuscular junction stability

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the synaptic connection between motor neurons and muscle fibers. It is involved in crucial processes such as body movements and breathing. Its proper development requires the guidance of motor axons toward their specific targets, the development of multi-innervated myofibers, and a selective synapse stabilization. It first consists of the removal of excessive motor axons on myofibers, going from multi-innervation to a single innervation of each myofiber. Whereas guidance cues of motor axons toward their specific muscular targets are well characterized, only few molecular and cellular cues have been reported as clues for selecting and stabilizing specific neuromuscular junctions. We will first provide a brief summary on NMJ development. We will then review molecular cues that are involved in NMJ stabilization, in both pre- and post-synaptic compartments, considering motor neurons and Schwann cells on the one hand, and muscle on the other hand. We will provide links with pathologies and highlight advances that can be brought both by basic research on NMJ development and clinical data resulting from the analyses of neurodegeneration of synaptic connections to obtain a better understanding of this process. The goal of this review is to highlight the findings toward understanding the roles of poly- or single-innervations and the underlying mechanisms of NMJ stabilization.

Outcome of surgical reconstruction after traumatic total brachial plexus palsy

BACKGROUND

Double free muscle transfer for the treatment of traumatic total brachial plexus injury provides useful prehensile function. We studied the outcome of this muscle transfer procedure, including the changes in disability and quality-of-life scores.

METHODS

Thirty-six patients with traumatic total brachial plexus injury who underwent double free muscle transfer for reconstruction from 2002 to 2008 and had a minimum follow-up of twenty-four months after the second free muscle transfer were studied. All were evaluated preoperatively and postoperatively with use of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) and Short Form-36 (SF-36) questionnaires. A separate questionnaire was used to determine job status, pain, use of the reconstructed hand, and satisfaction with the procedure.

RESULTS

The mean patient age was twenty-nine years (range, sixteen to forty-nine years), and the mean duration of follow-up was thirty-six months (range, twenty-four to seventy-nine months). The mean active range of motion was 23° (range, 0° to 80°) for shoulder flexion, 31° (range, 0° to 90°) for shoulder abduction, -18° (range, -80° to 40°) for shoulder external rotation, 62° (range, 0° to 130°) for the shoulder rotation arc, 119° (range, 90° to 150°) for elbow flexion, and -33° (range, -60° to -20°) for elbow extension. The power of elbow flexion was M4 in twenty-five patients and M3 in eleven. Twenty-three patients had triceps nerve reconstruction; extension was M0 in two of these patients, M1 in seven, M2 in ten, and M3 in four. Total active motion of the fingers was 46° (range, 0° to 98°), with a mean hook grip strength of 4 kg (range, 0 to 12 kg). Wilcoxon tests revealed significant improvements in the DASH score and the SF-36 physical functioning, role physical, and physical component summary scores. The majority of patients worked but had changed their type of work, used the reconstructed hand in activities of daily living that required both hands, and were satisfied with the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

Double free muscle transfer yielded satisfactory function and allowed use of the reconstructed hand in activities that required both hands. The improvement in the DASH score was greater than that in the SF-36 score.

Symptoms and disability after major peripheral nerve injury

Laceration and irrecoverable stretch, crush, or avulsion of a major peripheral nerve in the upper extremity causes substantial impairment in an adult patient. Hand care professionals who treat these patients encounter a wide range of coping strategies leading to varied courses of recovery and strikingly different final outcomes. There is evidence that the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects of recovery (not to mention the circumstantial aspects such as worker compensation and litigation) are as important as the physical aspects. Awareness of the factors that facilitate or hinder these aspects of recovery might improve the quality and effectiveness of our care.