Targeting NGF but not VEGFR1 or BDNF signaling reduces endometriosis-associated pain in mice

INTRODUCTION

Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects ∼10 % of women. A significant fraction of patients experience limited or no efficacy with current therapies. Tissue adjacent to endometriosis lesions often exhibits increased neurite and vascular density, suggesting that disease pathology involves neurotrophic activity and angiogenesis.

OBJECTIVES

We aim to evaluate the potential for key tyrosine-kinase-receptor-coupled neurotrophic molecules to contribute to endometriosis-associated pain in mice.

METHODS

Peritoneal fluid was collected from endometriosis patients undergoing surgery and the levels of NGF and VEGFR1 regulators (VEGFA, VEGFB, PLGF, and sVEGFR1) were quantified by ELISA. VEGFR1 regulator concentrations were used to calculate VEGFR1 occupancy. We used genetic depletion, neutralizing antibodies, and pharmacological approaches to specifically block neurotrophic ligands (NGF or BDNF) or receptors (VEGFR1, TRKs) in a murine model of endometriosis-associated pain. Endometriosis-associated pain was measured using von Frey filaments, quantification of spontaneous abdominal pain-related behavior, and thermal discomfort. Disease parameters were evaluated by lesion size and prevalence. To evaluate potential toxicity, we measured the effect of entrectinib dose and schedule on body weight, liver and kidney function, and bone structure (via micro-CT).

RESULTS

We found that entrectinib (pan-Trk inhibitor) or anti-NGF treatments reduced evoked pain, spontaneous pain, and thermal discomfort. In contrast, even though calculated receptor occupancy revealed that VEGFR1 agonist levels are sufficient to support signaling, blocking VEGFR1 via antibody or tamoxifen-induced knockout did not reduce pain or lesion size in mice. Targeting BDNF-TrkB with an anti-BDNF antibody also proved ineffective. Notably, changing dosing schedule to once weekly eliminated entrectinib-induced bone-loss without decreasing efficacy against pain.

CONCLUSIONS

This suggests NGF-TrkA signaling, but not BDNF-TrkB or VEGF-VEGFR1, mediates endometriosis-associated pain. Moreover, entrectinib blocks endometriosis-associated pain and reduces lesion sizes. Our results also indicated that entrectinib-like molecules are promising candidates for endometriosis treatment.

Primary ovarian insufficiency associated with lenvatinib therapy in a patient with hepatocellular carcinoma: A case report

The therapeutic effects of molecular targeted drugs are, in some cases, more pronounced than those of conventional chemotherapy, and their introduction as a standard treatment is increasing. The present report describes a case of ovarian insufficiency in a young woman caused by tyrosine kinase inhibitor lenvatinib. The 25-year-old woman received lenvatinib (8 mg/day) for 98 days as preoperative chemotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Blood testing the day before starting lenvatinib administration indicated 4.40 mIU/ml luteinizing hormone (LH), 5.2 mIU/ml follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and age-equivalent hormone values. Amenorrhea occurred after the start of administration, and 48 days later, the LH level was 41.8 mIU/ml and the FSH level was 44 mIU/ml, indicating a decrease in ovarian function. The patient underwent hepatectomy, and 49 days after the end of lenvatinib administration, the LH level had improved to 4.5 mIU/ml and the FSH level had improved to 2.5 mIU/ml. After the hepatectomy, the patient began to have regular menstrual cycles once again. Ovarian toxicity has not been recognized as a side effect of lenvatinib. However, the present report describes primary ovarian insufficiency considered to be caused by this drug. Potential damage to ovarian function may need to be considered when molecular targeted drugs with the same mechanism of action as lenvatinib are used in young women.

Emerging Drug Targets for Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory disease causing distressing symptoms and requiring a life-long management strategy. The objective of this review is to evaluate endometriosis-related pathways and identify novel therapies to treat it. We focused on the crucial role of inflammation and inflammatory molecules in order to define new perspectives for non-hormonal treatment of the disease by targeting inflammation, nuclear factor kappa B and cytokines, or reactive oxygen species, apoptotic and autophagic pathways, regulators of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and angiogenesis and neuroangiogenesis. Novel non-steroidal therapies targeting these pathways for endometriosis were explored, but multiple challenges remain. While numerous agents have been investigated in preclinical trials, few have reached the clinical testing stage because of use of inappropriate animal models, with no proper study design or reporting of preclinical strategies. Targeting estrogens is still the best way to control endometriosis progression and inflammation.

Pharmaceuticals targeting signaling pathways of endometriosis as potential new medical treatment: A review

Endometriosis (EM) is defined as endometrial tissues found outside the uterus. Growth and development of endometriotic cells in ectopic sites can be promoted via multiple pathways, including MAPK/MEK/ERK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, Rho/ROCK, reactive oxidative stress, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor-β, Wnt/β-catenin, vascular endothelial growth factor, estrogen, and cytokines. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms include proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, migration, invasion, fibrosis, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune escape. Current medical treatments for EM are mainly hormonal and symptomatic, and thus the development of new, effective, and safe pharmaceuticals targeting specific molecular and signaling pathways is needed. Here, we systematically reviewed the literature focused on pharmaceuticals that specifically target the molecular and signaling pathways involved in the pathophysiology of EM. Potential drug targets, their upstream and downstream molecules with key aberrant signaling, and the regulatory mechanisms promoting the growth and development of endometriotic cells and tissues were discussed. Hormonal pharmaceuticals, including melatonin, exerts proapoptotic via regulating matrix metallopeptidase activity while nonhormonal pharmaceutical sorafenib exerts antiproliferative effect via MAPK/ERK pathway and antiangiogenesis activity via VEGF/VEGFR pathway. N-acetyl cysteine, curcumin, and ginsenoside exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects via radical scavenging activity. Natural products have high efficacy with minimal side effects; for example, resveratrol and epigallocatechin gallate have multiple targets and provide synergistic efficacy to resolve the complexity of the pathophysiology of EM, showing promising efficacy in treating EM. Although new medical treatments are currently being developed, more detailed pharmacological studies and large sample size clinical trials are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of these treatments in the near future.

Can Endometriosis-Related Oxidative Stress Pave the Way for New Treatment Targets?

Endometriosis is a disease of reproductive age characterized by chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Its pathogenesis is complex and still partially unexplained. However, there is increasing evidence of the role of chronic inflammation, immune system dysregulation, and oxidative stress in its development and progression. The latter appears to be involved in multiple aspects of the disease. Indeed, disease progression sustained by a hyperproliferative phenotype can be related to reactive oxygen species (ROS) imbalance, as numerous experiments using drugs to counteract hyperproliferation have shown in recent years. Chronic pelvic pain is also associated with cell function dysregulation favoring chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, specifically involving macrophages and mast cell activation. Moreover, there is increasing evidence of a role for ROS and impaired mitochondrial function not only as deleterious effectors of the ovarian reserve in patients with endometriomas but also in terms of oocyte quality and, hence, embryo development impairment. Targeting oxidative stress looks to be a promising strategy to both curb endometriotic lesion progression and alleviate endometriosis-associated symptoms of chronic pain and infertility. More investigations are nevertheless needed to develop effective therapeutic strategies for clinical application.

Role of medical treatment of endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic benign disease that affects women of reproductive age. Medical therapy is often the first line of management for women with endometriosis in order to ameliorate symptoms or to prevent post-surgical disease recurrence. Currently, there are several medical options for the management of patients with endometriosis and long-term treatments should balance clinical efficacy (controlling pain symptoms and preventing recurrence of disease after surgery) with an acceptable safety-profile. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used in the treatment of chronic inflammatory conditions, being efficacious in relieving primary dysmenorrhea. Combined oral contraceptives and progestins, available for multiple routes of administration, are commonly administered as first-line hormonal therapies. Several studies demonstrated that they succeed in improving pain symptoms in the majority of patients; moreover, they are well tolerated and not expensive. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone-agonists are prescribed when first line therapies are ineffective, not tolerated or contraindicated. Even if these drugs are efficacious in treating women not responding to COCs or progestins, they are not orally available and have a less favorable tolerability profile (needing an appropriate add-back therapy). Because few data are available on long-term efficacy and safety of aromatase inhibitors they should be reserved only for women with symptoms who are refractory to other treatments only in a research environment. Almost all of the currently available treatment options for endometriosis suppress ovarian function and are not curative. For this reason, research into new drugs is unsurprisingly demanding. Amongst the drugs currently under investigation, gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists have shown most promise, currently in late-stage clinical development. There is a number of potential future therapies currently tested only in vitro, in animal models of endometriosis or in early clinical studies with a small sample size. Further studies are necessary to conclude whether these treatments would be of value for the treatment of endometriosis.

The expression and significance of leukemia inhibitory factor, interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor in Chinese patients with endometriosis

OBJECTIVE

To observe the levels of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in blood, peritoneal fluid, ectopic endometrial tissue, and ectopic endometrial stromal cells of patients with endometriosis, and to compare expression of IL-6, LIF and VEGF expression between endometriotic and non-endometriotic patients underwent laparoscopic surgery.

METHODS

Thirty-one patients who underwent laparoscopic surgery for endometriosis in our hospital from January 2018 to January 2020 were included in the observation group, and 32 patients who underwent laparoscopic surgery for uterine fibroids, ovarian serous cystadenoma, and ovarian teratomas, were included in the control group. The levels of LIF, IL-6 and VEGF in the blood and peritoneal fluid of the two groups of patients were detected. The levels of LIF, IL-6 and VEGF in ectopic endometrial tissue and self-paired eutopic endometrial tissue, ectopic endometrial stromal cells and self-paired eutopic endometrial stromal cells of patients in the observation group were detected. After treating the primary cultured ectopic endometrial stromal cells with LIF and IL-6 alone or in combination, the changes of VEGF mRNA of ectopic endometrial stromal cells and the VEGF levels in the supernatant were observed.

RESULTS

The levels of LIF, IL-6 and VEGF in the blood and peritoneal fluid of the observation group were all higher than those of the control group (P < 0.05), and the levels of LIF, IL-6 and VEGF in the peritoneal fluid of the observation group were significantly higher than those in the blood (P < 0.05). In the observation group, the expression levels of LIF-mRNA and IL-6 mRNA in the ectopic endometrial tissue were higher than those in the self-paired eutopic endometrial tissues (P < 0.05), while the expression level of VEGF mRNA in the ectopic endometrial tissues was lower than that in the self-paired eutopic endometrial tissues (P < 0.05). Besides, the mRNA expression levels of LIF, IL-6 and VEGF in ectopic endometrial stromal cells of the observation group were all higher than those in the self-paired eutopic endometrial stromal cells (P < 0.05). After stimulating ectopic endometrial stromal cells with LIF, IL-6 and LIF + IL-6, respectively, the VEGF levels in the supernatant were all significantly higher than that in the blank control group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The LIF, IL-6 and VEGF levels in blood and peritoneal fluid were increased in patients with endometriosis, and increased LIF and IL-6 in ectopic endometriosis stromal cells can play a synergistic role in increasing the VEGF levels, which may be involved in the occurrence and development of endometriosis.

Sunitinib induces primary ectopic endometrial cell apoptosis through up-regulation of STAT1 in vitro

Background

Endometriosis (EMS) is a prevalent gynecological condition characterized by the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity. This study aimed to clarify the targeted therapeutic effect of sunitinib in an endometriosis in vitro experiment.

Methods

Primary culture of ectopic endometrial cells and normal endometrial cells. Six tumor targeting drugs were selected to screen. MTT was used to determine the IC50, flow cytometry, and DAPI staining of the targeted drugs, in order to determine the apoptosis. The differential proteins after seeding were analyzed by protein spectrum, the correlation between the specific protein and cell apoptosis was determined by small molecule interference, and the expression of each related protein was detected by Western blot. Immunohistochemistry and ELISA were used to detect the expression of p‐PDGFR and p‐STAT1 in clinical samples, and the correlation between p‐STAT1 expression and ectopic focal size was analyzed by SPSS 19.

Results

Through the drug screening, it was found that sunitinib has a significant inhibitory effect on ectopic endometrial cells. It was determined that the IC50 of sunitinib on ectopic stromal endometrial cells was 3.32 μM, while the IC50 on normal endometrium was 7.9 μM. Meanwhile, the flow cytometry and DAPI nuclear dye that took out sunitinib had an inhibition effect on the ectopic endometrium at a concentration of 4 μM. Protein spectrum analysis was conducted on ectopic intimal cells after sunitinib treatment, and it was found that STAT1 is specifically expressed in ectopic endometrial cells. In vitro, and through fludarabine interference, it was revealed that sunitinib specifically inhibited the phosphorylation site Tyr751 of PDGFR, while the expression of STAT1, p‐STAT1, and caspase‐3 was significantly upregulated, and the expression of STAT1 and p‐STAT1 was positively correlated with the expression of caspase‐3. Finally, the expression of p‐PDGFR and p‐STAT1 in ectopic foal tissues was both higher than that in normal endometrium, and p‐STAT1 expression was positively with ectopic focal size.

Conclusion

The in vitro experiments revealed that sunitinib could upregulate the expression of STAT1 by inhibiting the phosphorylation site Tyr751 of PDGFR, thereby specifically inducing the apoptosis of the primary heterotopic mesenchymal endometrium.

Effects of Sorafenib and Arsenic Trioxide on U937 and KG-1 Cell Lines: Apoptosis or Autophagy?

Objective

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a clonal disorder of hemopoietic progenitor cells. The Raf serine/threonine (Ser/Thr) protein kinase isoforms including B-Raf and RAF1, are the upstream in the MAPK cascade that play essential functions in regulating cellular proliferation and survival. Activated autophagy-related genes have a dual role in both cell death and cell survival in cancer cells. The cytotoxic activities of arsenic trioxide (ATO) were widely assessed in many cancers. Sorafenib is known as a multikinase inhibitor which acts through suppression of Ser/Thr kinase Raf that was reported to have a key role in tumor cell signaling, proliferation, and angiogenesis. In this study, we examined the combination effect of ATO and sorafenib in AML cell lines.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, we studied in vitro effects of ATO and sorafenib on human leukemia cell lines. The effective concentrations of compounds were determined by MTT assay in both single and combination treatments. Apoptosis was evaluated by annexin-V FITC staining. Finally, mRNA levels of apoptotic and autophagy genes were evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Results

Data demonstrated that sorafenib, ATO, and their combination significantly increase the number of apoptotic cells. We found that the combination of ATO and sorafenib significantly reduces the viability of U937 and KG-1 cells. The expression level of selective autophagy genes, ULK1 and Beclin1 decreased but LC3-II increased in U937.

Conclusion

The expression levels of apoptotic and autophagy activator genes were increased in response to treatment. The crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy is a complicated mechanism and further investigations seem to be necessary.

Primary ovarian insufficiency associated with pazopanib therapy in a breast angiosarcoma patient: A CARE-compliant case report

RATIONAL

The growing population of young cancer survivors and a trend toward postponing pregnancy until later years in life are leading to a deeper attention towards understanding treatment-induced sequelae, and, in particular, the effects of cancer and/or treatment on fertility. Nowadays, the infertility risks potentially associated with molecular targeted therapies are not established, and clinical reports are sparse. Moreover, the increasing use of molecular targeted drugs in the adjuvant setting and in diseases with better prognosis makes preservation of fertility a major topic in current research.

PATIENT'S CONCERNS

Here, we report the case of an 18-year-old woman, with a 3-cm superficial lump of the right breast, who had no remarkable family or medical history. Menarche had occurred at the age of 14 years, with normal regular periods.

DIAGNOSIS

High-grade angiosarcoma, with metastatic progression and multiple relapse, was diagnosed.

INTERVENTIONS

After diagnosis, right radical mastectomy was carried out with no evidence of residual disease. No adjuvant treatment was delivered. Lymph node metastasis were found later and chemotherapy with doxorubicin 25 mg/m/day and ifosfamide 1 g/m/day (both on days 1-3) every 21 days was administered. During treatment, the patient reported menstrual irregularities but no amenorrhea. Due to further local relapse a few years later, the patient was treated for progressive metastatic disease with gemcitabine 1000 mg/m on days 1 and 8 every 21 days for 6 cycles, and underwent surgery, followed by pegylated liposomal doxorubicin, 50 mg/m on day 1 every 28 days. After further disease progression 5 years after first diagnosis, pazopanib was administered at a dose of 800 mg daily for 10 months.

OUTCOMES

The patient experienced a transient ovarian insufficiency possibly due to pazopanib. Since amenorrhea developed within 2 months from the initiation of pazopanib treatment and menses returned regularly only after discontinuation of the treatment itself.

LESSONS

This is the first case report that strongly suggests a correlation between pazopanib exposure and development of ovarian insufficiency. Our case tantalizes to inspire additional preclinical and clinical research on the true incidence, possible dose dependence, and reversibility of pazopanib (and other TKIs) -induced ovarian failure.

KIT as a therapeutic target for non-oncological diseases

KIT is a receptor tyrosine kinase that after binding to its ligand stem cell factor activates signaling cascades linked to biological processes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration and cell survival. Based on studies performed on SCF and/or KIT mutant animals that presented anemia, sterility, and/or pigmentation disorders, KIT signaling was mainly considered to be involved in the regulation of hematopoiesis, gametogenesis, and melanogenesis. More recently, novel animal models and ameliorated cellular and molecular techniques have led to the discovery of a widen repertoire of tissue compartments and functions that are being modulated by KIT. This is the case for the lung, heart, nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, kidney, liver, and bone. For this reason, the tyrosine kinase inhibitors that were originally developed for the treatment of hemato-oncological diseases are being currently investigated for the treatment of non-oncological disorders such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and alzheimer's disease, among others. The beneficial effects of some of these tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been proven to depend on KIT inhibition. This review will focus on KIT expression and regulation in healthy and pathologic conditions other than cancer. Moreover, advances in the development of anti-KIT therapies, including tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and their application will be discussed.

Anti-Angiogenic Alternative and Complementary Medicines for the Treatment of Endometriosis: A Review of Potential Molecular Mechanisms

Endometriosis is caused by the growth or infiltration of endometrial tissues outside of the endometrium and myometrium. Symptoms include pain and infertility. Surgery and hormonal therapy are widely used in Western medicine for the treatment of endometriosis; however, the side effects associated with this practice include disease recurrence and menopause, which can severely influence quality of life. Angiogenesis is the main biological mechanism underlying the development of endometriosis. Numerous natural products and Chinese medicines with potent anti-angiogenic effects have been investigated, and the molecular basis underlying their therapeutic effects in endometriosis has been explored. This review aims to describe natural products and compounds that suppress angiogenesis associated with endometriosis and to assess their diverse molecular mechanisms of action. Furthermore, this review provides a source of information relating to alternative and complementary therapeutic products that mediate anti-angiogenesis. An extensive review of the literature and electronic databases, such as the China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, and Embase, was conducted using the keywords 'endometriosis,' 'traditional Chinese medicine,' 'Chinese herbal medicine,' 'natural compounds,' and 'anti-angiogenic' therapy. Anti-angiogenic therapy is an emerging strategy for the treatment of endometriosis. Natural anti-angiogenic products and Chinese medicines provide several beneficial clinical effects, including pain relief. In this review, we summarize clinical trials and experimental studies of endometriosis using natural products and Chinese medicines. In particular, we focus on anti-angiogenic products and alternative and complementary medicines for the treatment of endometriosis and additionally examine their therapeutic efficacy and mechanisms of action. Anti-angiogenic natural products and/or compounds provide a new approach for the treatment of endometriosis. Future work will require randomized trials with larger numbers of subjects, as well as long-term follow-up to confirm the findings described here.

Immunoexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor and B-cell lymphoma 2 in the uterine tissue of rats treated with melatonin in the estrus phase1

PURPOSE

To investigate the effect of melatonin on uterine tissue in the ovariectomized rat model.

METHODS

Fourty Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups for histologic and immunohistochemical examination. The rats were first numbered randomly and then randomly divided into 4 equal groups: control (group 1), torsion (group 2), torsion+detorsion (group 3) and torsion+detorsion+melatonin (group 4) groups. In addition, four Wistar albino rats were used for western blot analysis in each group. And also, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured biochemically in all rats.

RESULTS

The histopathological examination of the uterine tissue in rats ovarectomized showed a degeneration in uterine glands, dilation of blood vessels in the internal layer with a thrombosis and bleeding, abnormal nucleuses and vacuolated cytoplasm above and below the nucleus. In torsion group, the apoptotic cells increased in luminal epithelium and gland cells. In the melatonin group showed that the Bcl2 negative effect on the uterine epithelium and did not lead to apoptotic cells.

CONCLUSION

The increase in vascular endothelial growth factor expression resulted in the rearrangement of endothelial cell growth and the induction of angiogenesis.

Chronic Niche Inflammation in Endometriosis-Associated Infertility: Current Understanding and Future Therapeutic Strategies

Endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent inflammatory disease that affects up to 10% of women of reproductive age and accounts for up to 50% of female infertility cases. It has been highly associated with poorer outcomes of assisted reproductive technology (ART), including decreased oocyte retrieval, lower implantation, and pregnancy rates. A better understanding of the pathogenesis of endometriosis-associated infertility is crucial for improving infertility treatment outcomes. Current theories regarding how endometriosis reduces fertility include anatomical distortion, ovulatory dysfunction, and niche inflammation-associated peritoneal or implantation defects. This review will survey the latest evidence on the role of inflammatory niche in the peritoneal cavity, ovaries, and uterus of endometriosis patients. Nonhormone treatment strategies that target these inflammation processes are also included. Furthermore, mesenchymal stem cell-based therapies are highlighted for potential endometriosis treatment because of their immunomodulatory effects and tropism toward inflamed lesion foci. Potential applications of stem cell therapy in treatment of endometriosis-associated infertility in particular for safety and efficacy are discussed.

Investigational drugs for the treatment of endometriosis, an update on recent developments

INTRODUCTION

Endometriosis is a hormone-dependent benign chronic disease that requires a chronic medical therapy. Although currently available drugs are efficacious in treating endometriosis-related pain, some women experience partial or no improvement. Moreover, the recurrence of symptoms is expected after discontinuation of the therapies. Currently, new drugs are under intense clinical investigation for the treatment of endometriosis.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to offer the reader a complete and updated overview on new investigational drugs and early molecular targets for the treatment of endometriosis. The authors describe the pre-clinical and clinical development of these agents.

EXPERT OPINION

Among the drugs under investigation, late clinical trials on gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists (GnRH-ant) showed the most promising results for the treatment of endometriosis. Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are efficacious in treating endometriosis related pain symptoms but they cause significant adverse effects that limit their long-term use. New targets have been identified to produce drugs for the treatment of endometriosis, but the majority of these new compounds have only been investigated in laboratory studies or early clinical trials. Thus, further clinical research is required in order to elucidate their efficacy and safety in human.

Advances in studies of tyrosine kinase inhibitors and their acquired resistance

Protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) is one of the major signaling enzymes in the process of cell signal transduction, which catalyzes the transfer of ATP-γ-phosphate to the tyrosine residues of the substrate protein, making it phosphorylation, regulating cell growth, differentiation, death and a series of physiological and biochemical processes. Abnormal expression of PTK usually leads to cell proliferation disorders, and is closely related to tumor invasion, metastasis and tumor angiogenesis. At present, a variety of PTKs have been used as targets in the screening of anti-tumor drugs. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) compete with ATP for the ATP binding site of PTK and reduce tyrosine kinase phosphorylation, thereby inhibiting cancer cell proliferation. TKI has made great progress in the treatment of cancer, but the attendant acquired acquired resistance is still inevitable, restricting the treatment of cancer. In this paper, we summarize the role of PTK in cancer, TKI treatment of tumor pathways and TKI acquired resistance mechanisms, which provide some reference for further research on TKI treatment of tumors.

Endometrial stem/progenitor cells and their role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

Human endometrium regenerates on a cyclical basis each month, likely mediated by endometrial stem/progenitor cells. Several types of stem/progenitor cells have been identified: CD140b⁺CD146⁺ or SUSD2⁺ endometrial mesenchymal stem cells (eMSCs), N-cadherin⁺ endometrial epithelial progenitor cells (eEPs), and side population (SP) cells, a heterogeneous population predominantly comprising endothelial cells. eMSCs reside in a perivascular niche and likely mediate angiogenesis and stromal regeneration. Human eEPs are located in the bases of glands in the basalis and are likely more primitive than SSEA-1⁺ basalis epithelial cells. Endometrial stem/progenitor cells may contribute to the pathogenesis of endometriosis by their retrograde shedding into the pelvic cavity, either after menarche or as a result of neonatal uterine bleeding. eMSCs may have a role in the generation of progesterone-resistant phenotype of endometrial stromal fibroblasts (eSFs) in endometriosis. In future clinical practice, endometrial stem/progenitor cells may be used to establish diagnosis of endometriosis or as therapeutic targets.

Fertility, Cardiac, and Orthopedic Challenges in Survivors of Adult and Childhood Sarcoma

The combination of cisplatin, doxorubicin, and methotrexate was established as the standard backbone of contemporary osteosarcoma therapy in 1986. Since then, however, further improving the survival of patients with osteosarcoma has been challenging-30% to 40% of patients with osteosarcoma still die of this disease. In addition, these patients often experience loss of fertility at a young age, short- and long-term treatment-related cardiotoxicity, and adverse orthopedic effects from surgical resection of the tumor or endoprosthetic reconstructions. Cancer treatment often markedly increases the risk of infertility later in life, causing many patients substantial distress and regret. Sperm banking and oocyte cryopreservation are standard of care and should be available to all at-risk patients. Newer techniques, such as autologous gonadal tissue transplant for prepubertal children, are being developed, and newer systemic agents have infertility risk profiles that remain undefined and warrant further study. Cost and access remain barriers to these options. The late effects of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity are also increasingly a problem for these patients. These effects are often progressive and can be disabling. Adding dexrazoxane to doxorubicin therapy significantly reduces the risk for most adverse cardiac outcomes without compromising the efficacy of induction chemotherapy. Limb salvage surgery remains the standard of care for treatment in the majority of patients with extremity sarcomas. Modular metal prostheses and allograft reconstructions comprised the majority of surgical procedures for limb salvage surgery. The most common mechanism of failure of these implants is infection and mechanical failure of the implant.

Oncofertility in sarcoma patients

Treatment for sarcoma can significantly decrease fertility, both due to the irradiation of gonads, and the impact of chemotherapy on gametogenesis. Infertility in cancer survivors causes significant regret and decreased quality of life in their adulthood. As this cancer mainly affects children and young adults, fertility preservation is an essential part of survivorship care, however it remains one of the least implemented services in adolescent and young adult cancer patients. Success of fertility preservation is highly dependent on the referral prior to oncologic treatment. Early patient counseling with possible consult with oncofertility specialists should be offered to every oncologic patient in reproductive age or younger. There are several options available and in continuous evolution for fertility preservation. Cryopreservation of sperm and oocytes constitutes nowadays the standard of care, and should be offered to all patients. Other methods currently under development will potentially bring in the future reliable options for fertility preservation in a wider range of patients, such as those in pre-pubertal age at the time of diagnosis, or with an insufficient sperm count for semen banking. These include testicular sperm extraction (TESE), autologous ovarian tissue transplant, and in vitro maturation of gametes. Novel therapies such as molecular-targeted agents offer a safer toxicity profile regarding fertility, but further research is required to evaluate their impact on the long term, both alone and in combination therapies. Difficulties to access fertility preservation and its costs remain a significant impediment for many patients in need. Warranting access to all sarcoma patients should be a priority in all healthcare professionals involved in their care.

Transforming Growth Factor-beta 1 Involved in the Pathogenesis of Endometriosis through Regulating Expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor under Hypoxia

Background:

Endometriosis (EMs) is a common gynecological disorder characterized by endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus. Hypoxia induces the expression of many important downstream genes to regulate the implantation, survival, and maintenance of ectopic endometriotic lesions. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) plays a major role in the etiology of EMs. We aimed to determine whether TGF-β1 affects EMs development and progression and its related mechanisms in hypoxic conditions.

Methods:

Endometrial tissue was obtained from women with or without EMs undergoing surgery from October, 2015 to October, 2016. Endometrial cells were cultured and then exposed to hypoxia and TGF-β1 or TGF-β1 inhibitors. The messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression levels of TGF-β1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) were measured. A Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay was used to examine the effect of TGF-β1 and hypoxia on a VEGF promoter construct. Student's t-test was performed for comparison among groups (one-sided or two-sided) and a value of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results:

TGF-β1, VEGF, HIF-1α mRNA, and protein expression were significantly higher in EMs tissue than that in normal endometrial tissue (t = 2.16, P = 0.042). EMs primary cultured cells exposed to hypoxia expressed 43.8% higher VEGF mRNA and protein (t = 6.84, P = 0.023). VEGF mRNA levels increased 12.5% in response to TGF-β, whereas the combined treatment of hypoxia/TGF-β1 resulted in a much higher production (87.5% increases) of VEGF. The luciferase activity of the VEGF promoter construct was increased in the presence of either TGF-β1 (2.6-fold, t = 6.08, P = 0.032) or hypoxia (11.2-fold, t = 32.70, P < 0.001), whereas the simultaneous presence of both stimuli resulted in a significant cooperative effect (18.5-fold, t = 33.50, P < 0.001).

Conclusions:

The data support the hypothesis that TGF-β1 is involved in the pathogenesis of EMs through regulating VEGF expression. An additive effect of TGF-β1 and hypoxia is taking place at the transcriptional level.

The Effect of Targeted Therapy for Genitourinary Malignancies on Sexual Function and Fertility

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Targeted therapy for genitourinary cancer is being used at an increasing rate. These medications show great survival benefit but are relatively lacking in long-term adverse effect data. With increasing survivability, measures to improve quality of life must be considered for GU cancer and a large proponent of this is sexual function.

RECENT FINDINGS

mTOR inhibitors have shown an effect on testosterone levels and may have a link to abnormal semen parameters. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have shown no adverse sexual outcomes in the literature. There are laboratory links to tyrosine kinases having a beneficial effect on erectile and sexual function. Possible sexual side effects must be discussed with patients receiving a diagnosis of cancer. Further research is required to determine the exact mechanisms and outcomes of sexual function with new and emerging targeted therapy.

Improvements in Clinical Trials Information Will Improve the Reproductive Health and Fertility of Cancer Patients

There are a number of barriers that result in cancer patients not being referred for oncofertility care, which include knowledge about reproductive risks of antineoplastic agents. Without this information, clinicians do not always make recommendations for oncofertility care. The objective of this study was to describe the level of reproductive information and recommendations that clinicians have available in clinical trial protocols regarding oncofertility management and follow-up, and the information that patients may receive in clinical trials patient information sheets or consent forms. A literature review of the 71 antineoplastic drugs included in the 68 clinical trial protocols showed that 68% of the antineoplastic drugs had gonadotoxic animal data, 32% had gonadotoxic human data, 83% had teratogenic animal data, and 32% had teratogenic human data. When the clinical trial protocols were reviewed, only 22% of the protocols reported the teratogenic risks and 32% of the protocols reported the gonadotoxic risk. Only 56% of phase 3 protocols had gonadotoxic information and 13% of phase 3 protocols had teratogenic information. Nine percent of the protocols provided fertility preservation recommendations and 4% provided reproductive information in the follow-up and survivorship period. Twenty-six percent had a section in the clinical trials protocol, which identified oncofertility information easily. When gonadotoxic and teratogenic effects of treatment were known, they were not consistently included in the clinical trial protocols and the lack of data for new drugs was not reported. Very few protocols gave recommendations for oncofertility management and follow-up following the completion of cancer treatment. The research team proposes a number of recommendations that should be required for clinicians and pharmaceutical companies developing new trials.

Efficacy of Anti-VEGF/VEGFR Agents on Animal Models of Endometriosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background/Objective

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the most important promotor of angiogenesis. Some studies indicate that anti-angiogenic agents that interfere with VEGF and its receptor (VEGFR), i.e., anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents, may be applied to treat endometriosis. This meta-analysis investigated the efficacy of anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents in animal models of endometriosis.

Methods

A systematic literature search was performed for animal studies published in English or Chinese from January 1995 to June 2016, which evaluated the effect of anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents on endometriosis. The databases were: PubMed, Web of Science, BIOSIS, Embase, and CNKI. The quality of included studies was assessed using the SYRCLE tool. The random-effect models were used to combine the results of selected studies. Heterogeneity was assessed using H²statistic and I² statistic. Subgroup analyses were performed to determine the source of heterogeneity in endometriosis scores and follicle numbers.

Results

We identified 13 studies that used anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents in various animal models. The meta-analysis showed that anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents were associated with smaller size (standardized mean difference (SMD) –0.96, 95% CI –1.31 to –0.62; P < 0.0001) and weight (SMD –1.70, 95% CI –2.75 to –0.65; P = 0.002) of endometriosis lesions, relative to the untreated controls, as well as a lower incidence rate of endometriosis (risk ratio 0.26, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.93; P = 0.038) and endometriosis score (SMD –1.17, 95% CI –1.65 to –0.69; P < 0.0001); the number of follicles were similar (SMD –0.78, 95% CI –1.65 to 0.09; P = 0.08).

Conclusions

Anti-VEGF/VEGFR agents appeared to inhibit the growth of endometriosis, with no effect on ovarian function. Anti-angiogenic therapy may be a novel strategy in treating endometriosis.

Effects of cisplatin and letrozole on surgically induced endometriosis and comparison of the two medications in a rat model

This study was to investigate the effects of cisplatin (CDDP) and letrozole on surgically induced endometriosis and comparison of the two drugs in a rat model. Endometriosis was surgically induced by autologous transplantation of endometrial pieces. Thirty model rats were divided into three groups, randomly. Group 1 (n=10) served as control and received no medication. Group 2 (n=10) received 0.2mg/kg/day of oral letrozole. Group 3 (n=10) received 35mg/m(2) CDDP via peritoneal perfusion every four days. All the rats were treated for 24days. The growth and histologic score of the implants were evaluated. The proliferation- and angiogenesis-associated proteins were assessed using immunohistochemistry and western blotting. The serum sex hormones were assayed using ELISA. After the medication, the growth and histologic score of the implants were significantly lower in the 2 and 3 groups than in the control group. The protein expressions of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), aromatase P450 (P450arom), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, were significantly lower in groups 2 and 3 than in the control group. Further, the P450arom level was lower in the letrozole group than in the CDDP group. The TGF-β and MMP-2 levels were lower in the CDDP group than in the letrozole group. Serum T level was significantly higher in the letrozole group, and serum E2 level was lower in the letrozole group. In conclusion, cisplatin and letrozole caused similar regression of the implants in the endometriosis model rats. But their effects on the proliferation- and angiogenesis-associated protein expressions and the serum sex hormone levels were different. Cisplatin and letrozole might cause the effects in the endometriotic foci through different mechanism.

Small-molecule inhibitor sorafenib regulates immunoreactions by inducing survival and differentiation of bone marrow cells

Sorafenib has been used for the treatment of liver cancer. However, its clinical impact on human immunity system remains poorly known. Our previous study has shown that sorafenib modulates immunosuppressive cell populations in murine liver cancer models. Here, we continue to report that low doses of sorafenib promotes the survival of murine bone marrow cells (BMCs) in a dose-dependent manner by up-regulating the anti-apoptotic protein survivin. Sorafenib induces differentiation of BMCs into suppressive dendritic cells that inhibit autologous T-cell proliferation and stimulate CD4+ T cells to express increased IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IFN-γ and TNF-α, and reduced levels of IL-6 and CD25, which indicates that sorafenib-induced dendritic cells represent a distinct cellular subset with unique properties. Taken together, our findings suggest that in addition to its anticancer effects, sorafenib has an immunoregulatory property that is apparent at low doses.