1
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Tapia L, Solozabal N, Solà J, Pérez Y, Miller WT, Alfonso I. Modulation of Src Kinase Activity by Selective Substrate Recognition with Pseudopeptidic Cages. Chemistry 2021; 27:9542-9549. [PMID: 33904620 PMCID: PMC8362067 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202100990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The selective recognition of tyrosine residues in peptides is an appealing approach to inhibiting their tyrosine kinase (TK)-mediated phosphorylation. Herein, we describe pseudopeptidic cages that efficiently protect substrates from the action of the Src TK enzyme, precluding the corresponding Tyr phosphorylation. Fluorescence emission titrations show that the most efficient cage inhibitors strongly bind the peptide substrates with a very good correlation between the binding constant and the inhibitory potency. Structural insights and additional control experiments further support the proposed mechanism of selective supramolecular protection of the substrates. Moreover, the approach also works in a completely different kinase-substrate system. These results illustrate the potential of supramolecular complexes for the efficient and selective modulation of TK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Tapia
- Department of Biological ChemistryInstitute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, IQAC-CSICJordi Girona 18–2608034BarcelonaSpain
| | - Naiara Solozabal
- NMR FacilityInstitute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, IQAC-CSICJordi Girona 18–2608034BarcelonaSpain
| | - Jordi Solà
- Department of Biological ChemistryInstitute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, IQAC-CSICJordi Girona 18–2608034BarcelonaSpain
| | - Yolanda Pérez
- NMR FacilityInstitute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, IQAC-CSICJordi Girona 18–2608034BarcelonaSpain
| | - W. Todd Miller
- Department of Physiology and BiophysicsStony Brook University and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical CenterStony BrookNY, 11794USA
| | - Ignacio Alfonso
- Department of Biological ChemistryInstitute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, IQAC-CSICJordi Girona 18–2608034BarcelonaSpain
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2
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Simatou A, Simatos G, Goulielmaki M, Spandidos DA, Baliou S, Zoumpourlis V. Historical retrospective of the SRC oncogene and new perspectives (Review). Mol Clin Oncol 2020; 13:21. [PMID: 32765869 PMCID: PMC7403812 DOI: 10.3892/mco.2020.2091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its first discovery as part of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) genome, the c-SRC (SRC) proto-oncogene has been proved a key regulator of cancer development and progression, and thus it has been highlighted as an attractive target for anti-cancer therapeutic strategies. Though the exact mechanisms of its action are still not fully understood, SRC protein mediates crucial normal cell functions, such as cell development, proliferation and survival, and its dysregulation is considered as an oncogenic signature and a driving force for cancer initiation. In the present review, we present a flashback to the history of the Src research, while focusing on the most important milestones in the field. Moreover, we investigate the proposed regulatory mechanisms and molecules that mediate its action in order to designate putative therapeutic targets and useful prognostic and/or diagnostic tools. Furthermore, we present and discuss existing therapeutic approaches that are explored in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - George Simatos
- First Breast Unit, Saint Savas Cancer Hospital, 11522 Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Goulielmaki
- Biomedical Applications Unit, Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF), 11635 Athens, Greece
| | - Demetrios A Spandidos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Stella Baliou
- Biomedical Applications Unit, Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF), 11635 Athens, Greece
| | - Vassilios Zoumpourlis
- Biomedical Applications Unit, Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF), 11635 Athens, Greece
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3
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Krishnan H, Miller WT, Blanco FJ, Goldberg GS. Src and podoplanin forge a path to destruction. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:241-249. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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4
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Kokuda R, Watanabe R, Okuzaki D, Akamatsu H, Oneyama C. MicroRNA-137-mediated Src oncogenic signaling promotes cancer progression. Genes Cells 2018; 23:688-701. [PMID: 29962093 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The tyrosine kinase c-Src is frequently overexpressed and activated in a wide variety of human cancers. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the upregulation of c-Src remain elusive. To examine whether microRNA-mediated c-Src upregulation promotes cancer progression, we screened miRNAs with complementarity to the 3'-UTR of c-Src mRNA. Among these miRNAs, down-regulation of miR-137 was tightly associated with c-Src-mediated tumor progression of human colon cancer cells/tissues. Re-expression of miR-137 in human colon cancer cells suppressed tumor growth and caused the disruption of focal contacts, suppression of cell adhesion, and invasion, although restoration of c-Src in miR-137-treated cells could not fully rescue the tumor-suppressive effect of miR-137. We found that miR-137 targets AKT2 and paxillin also and miR-137-mediated regulation of c-Src /AKT2 is crucial for controlling tumor growth, whereas that of c-Src/paxillin contributes to malignancy. miR-137 suppressed Src-related oncogenic signaling and changed the expression of miRNAs that are regulated by Src activation. miR-137 controls the expression of c-Src/AKT2/paxillin and synergistically suppresses Src oncogenic signaling evoked from focal adhesions. In various human cancers that harbor c-Src upregulation, the dysfunction of this novel mechanism would serve as a critical trigger for tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rie Kokuda
- Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Risayo Watanabe
- Division of Cancer Cell Regulation, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Daisuke Okuzaki
- DNA-chip Developmental Center for Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Chitose Oneyama
- Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Division of Cancer Cell Regulation, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, Nagoya, Japan
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5
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Krishnan H, Rayes J, Miyashita T, Ishii G, Retzbach EP, Sheehan SA, Takemoto A, Chang Y, Yoneda K, Asai J, Jensen L, Chalise L, Natsume A, Goldberg GS. Podoplanin: An emerging cancer biomarker and therapeutic target. Cancer Sci 2018; 109:1292-1299. [PMID: 29575529 PMCID: PMC5980289 DOI: 10.1111/cas.13580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is a transmembrane receptor glycoprotein that is upregulated on transformed cells, cancer associated fibroblasts and inflammatory macrophages that contribute to cancer progression. In particular, PDPN increases tumor cell clonal capacity, epithelial mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, metastasis and inflammation. Antibodies, CAR-T cells, biologics and synthetic compounds that target PDPN can inhibit cancer progression and septic inflammation in preclinical models. This review describes recent advances in how PDPN may be used as a biomarker and therapeutic target for many types of cancer, including glioma, squamous cell carcinoma, mesothelioma and melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harini Krishnan
- Department of Physiology and BiophysicsStony Brook UniversityStony BrookNYUSA
| | - Julie Rayes
- Institute of Cardiovascular ScienceCollege of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamEdgbastonBirminghamUK
| | - Tomoyuki Miyashita
- Division of PathologyExploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial CenterNational Cancer CenterKashiwaChibaJapan
- Laboratory of Cancer BiologyDepartment of Integrated BiosciencesGraduate School of Frontier SciencesThe University of TokyoKashiwaChibaJapan
| | - Genichiro Ishii
- Division of PathologyExploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial CenterNational Cancer CenterKashiwaChibaJapan
- Laboratory of Cancer BiologyDepartment of Integrated BiosciencesGraduate School of Frontier SciencesThe University of TokyoKashiwaChibaJapan
| | - Edward P. Retzbach
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular BiologyRowan University School of Osteopathic MedicineStratfordNJUSA
| | - Stephanie A. Sheehan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular BiologyRowan University School of Osteopathic MedicineStratfordNJUSA
| | - Ai Takemoto
- Division of Experimental ChemotherapyThe Cancer Chemotherapy CenterJapanese Foundation for Cancer ResearchTokyoJapan
| | - Yao‐Wen Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical SciencesCollege of MedicineChang Gung UniversityTaoyuanTaiwanChina
| | - Kazue Yoneda
- Second Department of Surgery (Chest Surgery)University of Occupational and Environmental healthKitakyushuFukuokaJapan
| | - Jun Asai
- Department of DermatologyKyoto Prefectural University of Medicine Graduate School of Medical ScienceKyotoJapan
| | - Lasse Jensen
- Division of Cardiovascular MedicineDepartment of Medical and Health SciencesLinköping UniversityLinköpingSweden
| | - Lushun Chalise
- Department of NeurosurgeryNagoya University School of MedicineNagoyaJapan
| | - Atsushi Natsume
- Department of NeurosurgeryNagoya University School of MedicineNagoyaJapan
| | - Gary S. Goldberg
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular BiologyRowan University School of Osteopathic MedicineStratfordNJUSA
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6
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Retzbach EP, Sheehan SA, Nevel EM, Batra A, Phi T, Nguyen ATP, Kato Y, Baredes S, Fatahzadeh M, Shienbaum AJ, Goldberg GS. Podoplanin emerges as a functionally relevant oral cancer biomarker and therapeutic target. Oral Oncol 2018; 78:126-136. [PMID: 29496040 DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2018.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oral cancer has become one of the most aggressive types of cancer, killing 140,000 people worldwide every year. Current treatments for oral cancer include surgery and radiation therapies. These procedures can be very effective; however, they can also drastically decrease the quality of life for survivors. New chemotherapeutic treatments are needed to more effectively combat oral cancer. The transmembrane receptor podoplanin (PDPN) has emerged as a functionally relevant oral cancer biomarker and chemotherapeutic target. PDPN expression promotes tumor cell migration leading to oral cancer invasion and metastasis. Here, we describe the role of PDPN in oral squamous cell carcinoma progression, and how it may be exploited to prevent and treat oral cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward P Retzbach
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Stephanie A Sheehan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Evan M Nevel
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Amber Batra
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Tran Phi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Angels T P Nguyen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Yukinari Kato
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University; Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Soly Baredes
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Mahnaz Fatahzadeh
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, New Jersey School of Dental Medicine, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07103 USA
| | - Alan J Shienbaum
- Department of Pathology, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Gary S Goldberg
- Department of Molecular Biology and Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA.
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7
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Aleem S, Georghiou G, Kleiner RE, Guja K, Craddock BP, Lyczek A, Chan AI, Garcia-Diaz M, Miller WT, Liu DR, Seeliger MA. Structural and Biochemical Basis for Intracellular Kinase Inhibition by Src-specific Peptidic Macrocycles. Cell Chem Biol 2016; 23:1103-1112. [PMID: 27593110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2016.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinases are attractive therapeutic targets because their dysregulation underlies many diseases, including cancer. The high conservation of the kinase domain and the evolution of drug resistance, however, pose major challenges to the development of specific kinase inhibitors. We recently discovered selective Src kinase inhibitors from a DNA-templated macrocycle library. Here, we reveal the structural basis for how these inhibitors retain activity against a disease-relevant, drug-resistant kinase mutant, while maintaining Src specificity. We find that these macrocycles display a degree of modularity: two of their three variable groups interact with sites on the kinase that confer selectivity, while the third group interacts with the universally conserved catalytic lysine and thereby retains the ability to inhibit the "gatekeeper" kinase mutant. We also show that these macrocycles inhibit migration of MDA-MB-231 breast tumor cells. Our findings establish intracellular kinase inhibition by peptidic macrocycles, and inform the development of potent and specific kinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saadat Aleem
- Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8661, USA
| | - George Georghiou
- Dept. of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
| | - Ralph E Kleiner
- Dept. of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Kip Guja
- Dept. of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
| | - Barbara P Craddock
- Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8661, USA
| | - Agatha Lyczek
- Dept. of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
| | - Alix I Chan
- Dept. of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Miguel Garcia-Diaz
- Dept. of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
| | - W Todd Miller
- Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8661, USA
| | - David R Liu
- Dept. of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Markus A Seeliger
- Dept. of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8651, USA
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8
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Liu W, Yue F, Zheng M, Merlot A, Bae DH, Huang M, Lane D, Jansson P, Lui GYL, Richardson V, Sahni S, Kalinowski D, Kovacevic Z, Richardson DR. The proto-oncogene c-Src and its downstream signaling pathways are inhibited by the metastasis suppressor, NDRG1. Oncotarget 2016; 6:8851-74. [PMID: 25860930 PMCID: PMC4496188 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
N-myc downstream regulated gene-1 (NDRG1) is a potent metastasis suppressor that plays a key role in regulating signaling pathways involved in mediating cancer cell invasion and migration, including those derived from prostate, colon, etc. However, the mechanisms and molecular targets through which NDRG1 reduces cancer cell invasion and migration, leading to inhibition of cancer metastasis, are not fully elucidated. In this investigation, using NDRG1 over-expression models in three tumor cell-types (namely, DU145, PC3MM and HT29) and also NDRG1 silencing in DU145 and HT29 cells, we reveal that NDRG1 decreases phosphorylation of a key proto-oncogene, cellular Src (c-Src), at a well-characterized activating site (Tyr416). NDRG1-mediated down-regulation of EGFR expression and activation were responsible for the decreased phosphorylation of c-Src (Tyr416). Indeed, NDRG1 prevented recruitment of c-Src to EGFR and c-Src activation. Moreover, NDRG1 suppressed Rac1 activity by modulating phosphorylation of a c-Src downstream effector, p130Cas, and its association with CrkII, which acts as a "molecular switch" to activate Rac1. NDRG1 also affected another signaling molecule involved in modulating Rac1 signaling, c-Abl, which then inhibited CrkII phosphorylation. Silencing NDRG1 increased cell migration relative to the control and inhibition of c-Src signaling using siRNA, or a pharmacological inhibitor (SU6656), prevented this increase. Hence, the role of NDRG1 in decreasing cell migration is, in part, due to its inhibition of c-Src activation. In addition, novel pharmacological agents, which induce NDRG1 expression and are currently under development as anti-metastatic agents, markedly increase NDRG1 and decrease c-Src activation. This study leads to important insights into the mechanism involved in inhibiting metastasis by NDRG1 and how to target these pathways with novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensheng Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, P.R.China.,Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Fei Yue
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, P.R.China
| | - Minhua Zheng
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, P.R.China
| | - Angelica Merlot
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Dong-Hun Bae
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Michael Huang
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Darius Lane
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Patric Jansson
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Goldie Yuan Lam Lui
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Vera Richardson
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Sumit Sahni
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Danuta Kalinowski
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Zaklina Kovacevic
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Des R Richardson
- Molecular Pharmacology and Pathology Program, Department of Pathology and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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9
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Components in aqueous Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower extract inhibit in vitro melanoma cell growth. J Tradit Complement Med 2016; 7:45-49. [PMID: 28053887 PMCID: PMC5198834 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin cancer is extremely common, and melanoma causes about 80% of skin cancer deaths. In fact, melanoma kills over 50 thousand people around the world each year, and these numbers are rising. Clearly, standard treatments are not effectively treating melanoma, and alternative therapies are needed to address this problem. Hibiscus tea has been noted to have medicinal properties, including anticancer effects. Extracts from Hibiscus have been shown to inhibit the growth of a variety of cancer cells. In particular, recent studies found that polyphenols extracted from Hibiscus sabdariffa by organic solvents can inhibit melanoma cell growth. However, effects of aqueous extracts from Hibiscus rosa-sinesis flowers, which are commonly used to make traditional medicinal beverages, have not been examined on melanoma cells. Here, we report that aqueous H. rosa-sinesis flower extract contains compounds that inhibit melanoma cell growth in a dose dependent manner at concentrations that did not affect the growth of nontransformed cells. In addition, these extracts contain low molecular weight growth inhibitory compounds below 3 kD in size that combine with larger compounds to more effectively inhibit melanoma cell growth. Future work should identify these compounds, and evaluate their potential to prevent and treat melanoma and other cancers.
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10
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Nahta R, Al-Mulla F, Al-Temaimi R, Amedei A, Andrade-Vieira R, Bay SN, Brown DG, Calaf GM, Castellino RC, Cohen-Solal KA, Colacci A, Cruickshanks N, Dent P, Di Fiore R, Forte S, Goldberg GS, Hamid RA, Krishnan H, Laird DW, Lasfar A, Marignani PA, Memeo L, Mondello C, Naus CC, Ponce-Cusi R, Raju J, Roy D, Roy R, Ryan EP, Salem HK, Scovassi AI, Singh N, Vaccari M, Vento R, Vondráček J, Wade M, Woodrick J, Bisson WH. Mechanisms of environmental chemicals that enable the cancer hallmark of evasion of growth suppression. Carcinogenesis 2015; 36 Suppl 1:S2-18. [PMID: 26106139 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgv028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of the Halifax Project, this review brings attention to the potential effects of environmental chemicals on important molecular and cellular regulators of the cancer hallmark of evading growth suppression. Specifically, we review the mechanisms by which cancer cells escape the growth-inhibitory signals of p53, retinoblastoma protein, transforming growth factor-beta, gap junctions and contact inhibition. We discuss the effects of selected environmental chemicals on these mechanisms of growth inhibition and cross-reference the effects of these chemicals in other classical cancer hallmarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Nahta
- Departments of Pharmacology and Hematology & Medical Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine and Winship Cancer Institute, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA, Department of Pathology, Kuwait University, Safat 13110, Kuwait, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Firenze, 50134 Florence, Italy, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada, Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences/Colorado State University/Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1680, USA, Center for Radiological Research, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, Instituto de Alta Investigacion, Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica 8097877, Chile, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA, Department of Medicine/Medical Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1914, USA, Center for Environmental Carcinogenesis and Risk Assessment, Environmental Protection and Health Prevention Agency, Bologna 40126, Italy, Departments of Neurosurgery and Biochemistry and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 980033, USA, Department of Biological, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Polyclinic Plexus, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy, Mediterranean Institute of Oncology, 95029 Viagrande, Italy, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084-1501, USA, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontari
| | - Fahd Al-Mulla
- Department of Pathology, Kuwait University, Safat 13110, Kuwait
| | | | - Amedeo Amedei
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Firenze, 50134 Florence, Italy
| | - Rafaela Andrade-Vieira
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Sarah N Bay
- Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Dustin G Brown
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences/Colorado State University/Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1680, USA
| | - Gloria M Calaf
- Center for Radiological Research, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, Instituto de Alta Investigacion, Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica 8097877, Chile
| | - Robert C Castellino
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Karine A Cohen-Solal
- Department of Medicine/Medical Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1914, USA
| | - Annamaria Colacci
- Center for Environmental Carcinogenesis and Risk Assessment, Environmental Protection and Health Prevention Agency, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Nichola Cruickshanks
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Biochemistry and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 980033, USA
| | - Paul Dent
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Biochemistry and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 980033, USA
| | - Riccardo Di Fiore
- Department of Biological, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Polyclinic Plexus, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefano Forte
- Mediterranean Institute of Oncology, 95029 Viagrande, Italy
| | - Gary S Goldberg
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084-1501, USA
| | - Roslida A Hamid
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra, Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
| | - Harini Krishnan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Rowan University, Stratford, NJ 08084-1501, USA
| | - Dale W Laird
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Ahmed Lasfar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 60503, USA
| | - Paola A Marignani
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Lorenzo Memeo
- Mediterranean Institute of Oncology, 95029 Viagrande, Italy
| | - Chiara Mondello
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, National Research Council, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Christian C Naus
- Department of Cellular & Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Institute, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Richard Ponce-Cusi
- Instituto de Alta Investigacion, Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica 8097877, Chile
| | - Jayadev Raju
- Toxicology Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety Food Directorate, Health Products and Food Branch Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A0K9, Canada
| | - Debasish Roy
- Department of Natural Science, The City University of New York at Hostos Campus, Bronx, NY 10451, USA
| | - Rabindra Roy
- Molecular Oncology Program, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington DC 20057, USA
| | - Elizabeth P Ryan
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences/Colorado State University/Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1680, USA
| | - Hosni K Salem
- Urology Dept., kasr Al-Ainy School of Medicine, Cairo University, El Manial, Cairo 12515, Egypt
| | - A Ivana Scovassi
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, National Research Council, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Neetu Singh
- Advanced Molecular Science Research Centre, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, UP 226003, India
| | - Monica Vaccari
- Center for Environmental Carcinogenesis and Risk Assessment, Environmental Protection and Health Prevention Agency, Bologna 40126, Italy
| | - Renza Vento
- Department of Biological, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Polyclinic Plexus, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy, Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Jan Vondráček
- Department of Cytokinetics, Institute of Biophysics AS CR, Brno 612 65, Czech Republic
| | - Mark Wade
- Center for Genomic Science of IIT@SEMM, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Milan 16163, Italy and
| | - Jordan Woodrick
- Molecular Oncology Program, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington DC 20057, USA
| | - William H Bisson
- Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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11
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Krishnan H, Retzbach EP, Ramirez MI, Liu T, Li H, Miller WT, Goldberg GS. PKA and CDK5 can phosphorylate specific serines on the intracellular domain of podoplanin (PDPN) to inhibit cell motility. Exp Cell Res 2015; 335:115-22. [PMID: 25959509 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2015.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Revised: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that promotes tumor cell migration, invasion, and cancer metastasis. In fact, PDPN expression is induced in many types of cancer. Thus, PDPN has emerged as a functionally relevant cancer biomarker and chemotherapeutic target. PDPN contains 2 intracellular serine residues that are conserved between species ranging from mouse to humans. Recent studies indicate that protein kinase A (PKA) can phosphorylate PDPN in order to inhibit cell migration. However, the number and identification of specific residues phosphorylated by PKA have not been defined. In addition, roles of other kinases that may phosphorylate PDPN to control cell migration have not been investigated. We report here that cyclin dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) can phosphorylate PDPN in addition to PKA. Moreover, results from this study indicate that PKA and CDK5 cooperate to phosphorylate PDPN on both intracellular serine residues to decrease cell motility. These results provide new insight into PDPN phosphorylation dynamics and the role of PDPN in cell motility. Understanding novel mechanisms of PDPN intracellular signaling could assist with designing novel targeted chemotherapeutic agents and procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harini Krishnan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Science Center, 2 Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Edward P Retzbach
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Science Center, 2 Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Maria I Ramirez
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Tong Liu
- Center for Advanced Proteomics Research and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center,205 S. Orange Avenue, F-1226, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Hong Li
- Center for Advanced Proteomics Research and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center,205 S. Orange Avenue, F-1226, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - W Todd Miller
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Basic Science Tower T-5, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8661, USA
| | - Gary S Goldberg
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Science Center, 2 Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA.
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12
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Oneyama C, Okada M. MicroRNAs as the fine-tuners of Src oncogenic signalling. J Biochem 2015; 157:431-8. [PMID: 25862810 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvv036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cellular Src (c-Src) tyrosine kinase is upregulated and believed to play a pivotal role in various human cancers. However, the molecular mechanism underlying c-Src-mediated tumour progression remains elusive. Recent studies have revealed that several microRNAs (miRNAs) function as tumour suppressors by regulating the malignant expression of signalling molecules. Aberrant expression of miRNAs is frequently observed in human cancers and should be exploited to seek related molecular targets. In this review, we focus on miRNAs found to be involved in Src signalling in various cancers. We summarize recent findings on Src-related miRNAs, their target genes, mechanisms behind their interplay and their implications for cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chitose Oneyama
- Division of Microbiology and Oncology, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-1 Kanokoden, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8681, Japan and Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan Division of Microbiology and Oncology, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-1 Kanokoden, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8681, Japan and Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masato Okada
- Division of Microbiology and Oncology, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-1 Kanokoden, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8681, Japan and Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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13
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Antibody and lectin target podoplanin to inhibit oral squamous carcinoma cell migration and viability by distinct mechanisms. Oncotarget 2015; 6:9045-60. [PMID: 25826087 PMCID: PMC4496201 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is a unique transmembrane receptor that promotes tumor cell motility. Indeed, PDPN may serve as a chemotherapeutic target for primary and metastatic cancer cells, particularly oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells that cause most oral cancers. Here, we studied how a monoclonal antibody (NZ-1) and lectin (MASL) that target PDPN affect human OSCC cell motility and viability. Both reagents inhibited the migration of PDPN expressing OSCC cells at nanomolar concentrations before inhibiting cell viability at micromolar concentrations. In addition, both reagents induced mitochondrial membrane permeability transition to kill OSCC cells that express PDPN by caspase independent nonapoptotic necrosis. Furthermore, MASL displayed a surprisingly robust ability to target PDPN on OSCC cells within minutes of exposure, and significantly inhibited human OSCC dissemination in zebrafish embryos. Moreover, we report that human OSCC cells formed tumors that expressed PDPN in mice, and induced PDPN expression in infiltrating host murine cancer associated fibroblasts. Taken together, these data suggest that antibodies and lectins may be utilized to combat OSCC and other cancers that express PDPN.
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14
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Bera R, Chiou CY, Yu MC, Peng JM, He CR, Hsu CY, Huang HL, Ho UY, Lin SM, Lin YJ, Hsieh SY. Functional genomics identified a novel protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type F-mediated growth inhibition in hepatocarcinogenesis. Hepatology 2014; 59:2238-50. [PMID: 24470239 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED It is unclear how proliferating cells elicit suppression on cell proliferation and how cancer cells evade this growth suppression. Using a loss-of-function screening of the human kinome and phosphatome to identify genes suppressing tumor initiation in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we identified 19 genes and characterized one of the top-scoring tumor suppressor candidates, protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type F (PTPRF). We found that PTPRF was induced during cell proliferation by cell-cell contact. Ectopic expression of wild-type PTPRF, but not the phosphatase-inactive mutant, suppressed cell proliferation and colony formation in soft-agar assays. In contrast, PTPRF silencing led to cell hyperproliferation, enhanced tumor colony formation in soft agar, and increased xenograft tumor growth in nude mice. Mechanistically, PTPRF silencing showed aberrant ERK-dependent signaling including the phosphorylation/stabilization of v-myc avian myelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (MYC) through the direct activation of v-src avian sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (SRC) and suppression of PP2A. This PTPRF-mediated growth suppression during cell proliferation functioned independently of the Hippo-Yap pathway. Clinically, PTPRF was down-regulated in 42% HCC (37/89), 67% gastric cancer (27/40), and 100% colorectal cancer (40/40). PTPRF up-regulation was found in 24% HCC (21/89) and associated with better clinical outcomes. CONCLUSION A novel PTPRF-mediated growth suppression pathway was identified by way of a functional genomics screening in human hepatoma cells. Induction of PTPRF by cell-cell contact during cell proliferation quenched the activated ERK-dependent proliferation signaling to prevent cell hyperproliferation and tumor initiation. PTPRF down-regulation in HCC facilitated tumor development. Our findings shed light on how cancer cells can evade growth suppression and open a new avenue for future development of anticancer therapies.
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15
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Teckchandani A, Laszlo GS, Simó S, Shah K, Pilling C, Strait AA, Cooper JA. Cullin 5 destabilizes Cas to inhibit Src-dependent cell transformation. J Cell Sci 2013; 127:509-20. [PMID: 24284072 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.127829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation-dependent protein ubiquitylation and degradation provides an irreversible mechanism to terminate protein kinase signaling. Here, we report that mammary epithelial cells require cullin-5-RING-E3-ubiquitin-ligase complexes (Cul5-CRLs) to prevent transformation by a Src-Cas signaling pathway. Removal of Cul5 stimulates growth-factor-independent growth and migration, membrane dynamics and colony dysmorphogenesis, which are all dependent on the endogenous tyrosine kinase Src. Src is activated in Cul5-deficient cells, but Src activation alone is not sufficient to cause transformation. We found that Cul5 and Src together stimulate degradation of the Src substrate p130Cas (Crk-associated substrate). Phosphorylation stimulates Cas binding to the Cul5-CRL adaptor protein SOCS6 and consequent proteasome-dependent degradation. Cas is necessary for the transformation of Cul5-deficient cells. Either knockdown of SOCS6 or use of a degradation-resistant Cas mutant stimulates membrane ruffling, but not other aspects of transformation. Our results show that endogenous Cul5 suppresses epithelial cell transformation by several pathways, including inhibition of Src-Cas-induced ruffling through SOCS6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Teckchandani
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Avenue N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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16
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Mycophenolic acid inhibits migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells via multiple molecular pathways. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81702. [PMID: 24260584 PMCID: PMC3829969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is the metabolized product and active element of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) that has been widely used for the prevention of acute graft rejection. MPA potently inhibits inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) that is up-regulated in many tumors and MPA is known to inhibit cancer cell proliferation as well as fibroblast and endothelial cell migration. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time MPA’s antimigratory and anti-invasion abilities of MPA-sensitive AGS (gastric cancer) cells. Genome-wide expression analyses using Illumina whole genome microarrays identified 50 genes with ≥2 fold changes and 15 genes with > 4 fold alterations and multiple molecular pathways implicated in cell migration. Real-time RT-PCR analyses of selected genes also confirmed the expression differences. Furthermore, targeted proteomic analyses identified several proteins altered by MPA treatment. Our results indicate that MPA modulates gastric cancer cell migration through down-regulation of a large number of genes (PRKCA, DOCK1, INF2, HSPA5, LRP8 and PDGFRA) and proteins (PRKCA, AKT, SRC, CD147 and MMP1) with promigratory functions as well as up-regulation of a number of genes with antimigratory functions (ATF3, SMAD3, CITED2 and CEAMCAM1). However, a few genes that may promote migration (CYR61 and NOS3) were up-regulated. Therefore, MPA’s overall antimigratory role on cancer cells reflects a balance between promigratory and antimigratory signals influenced by MPA treatment.
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17
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Krishnan H, Ochoa-Alvarez JA, Shen Y, Nevel E, Lakshminarayanan M, Williams MC, Ramirez MI, Miller WT, Goldberg GS. Serines in the intracellular tail of podoplanin (PDPN) regulate cell motility. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:12215-21. [PMID: 23530051 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.c112.446823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is a transmembrane receptor that affects the activities of Rho, ezrin, and other proteins to promote tumor cell motility, invasion, and metastasis. PDPN is found in many types of cancer and may serve as a tumor biomarker and chemotherapeutic target. The intracellular region of PDPN contains only two serines, and these are conserved in mammals including mice and humans. We generated cells from the embryos of homozygous null Pdpn knock-out mice to investigate the relevance of these serines to cell growth and migration on a clear (PDPN-free) background. We report here that one or both of these serines can be phosphorylated by PKA (protein kinase A). We also report that conversion of these serines to nonphosphorylatable alanine residues enhances cell migration, whereas their conversion to phosphomimetic aspartate residues decreases cell migration. These results indicate that PKA can phosphorylate PDPN to decrease cell migration. In addition, we report that PDPN expression in fibroblasts causes them to facilitate the motility and viability of neighboring melanoma cells in coculture. These findings shed new light on how PDPN promotes cell motility, its role in tumorigenesis, and its utility as a functionally relevant biomarker and chemotherapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harini Krishnan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Molecular Biology, School of Osteopathic Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Stratford, New Jersey 08084, USA
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