"What's Your Taste in Music?" A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Various Soundscapes in Evoking Specific Tastes

Taste the music: Modality-general representation of affective states derived from auditory and gustatory stimuli

Prior studies have extensively examined modality-general representation of affect across various sensory modalities, particularly focusing on auditory and visual stimuli. However, little research has explored the modality-general representation of affect between gustatory and other sensory modalities. This study aimed to investigate whether the affective responses induced by tastes and musical pieces could be predicted within and across modalities. For each modality, eight stimuli were chosen based on four basic taste conditions (sweet, bitter, sour, and salty). Participants rated their responses to each stimulus using both taste and emotion scales. The multivariate analyses including multidimensional scaling and classification analysis were performed. The findings revealed that auditory and gustatory stimuli in the sweet category were associated with positive valence, whereas those from the other taste categories were linked to negative valence. Additionally, auditory and gustatory stimuli in sour taste category were linked to high arousal, whereas stimuli in bitter taste category were associated with low arousal. This study revealed the potential mapping of gustatory and auditory stimuli onto core affect space in everyday experiences. Moreover, it demonstrated that emotions evoked by taste and music could be predicted across modalities, supporting modality-general representation of affect.

Inducing Novel Sound-Taste Correspondences via an Associative Learning Task

The interest in crossmodal correspondences, including those involving sounds and involving tastes, has experienced rapid growth in recent years. However, the mechanisms underlying these correspondences are not well understood. In the present study (N = 302), we used an associative learning paradigm, based on previous literature using simple sounds with no consensual taste associations (i.e., square and triangle wave sounds at 200 Hz) and taste words (i.e., sweet and bitter), to test the influence of two potential mechanisms in establishing sound-taste correspondences and investigate whether either learning mechanism could give rise to new and long-lasting associations. Specifically, we examined an emotional mediation account (i.e., using sad and happy emoji facial expressions) and a transitive path (i.e., sound-taste correspondence being mediated by color, using red and black colored squares). The results revealed that the associative learning paradigm mapping the triangle wave tone with a happy emoji facial expression induced a novel crossmodal correspondence between this sound and the word sweet. Importantly, we found that this novel association was still present two months after the experimental learning paradigm. None of the other mappings, emotional or transitive, gave rise to any significant associations between sound and taste. These findings provide evidence that new crossmodal correspondences between sounds and tastes can be created by leveraging the affective connection between both dimensions, helping elucidate the mechanisms underlying these associations. Moreover, these findings reveal that these associations can last for several weeks after the experimental session through which they were induced.

Tasty vibes: Uncovering crossmodal correspondences between tactile vibrations and basic tastes

The interest in crossmodal correspondences individually involving the senses of touch and taste has grown rapidly in the last few decades. Several correspondences involving different tactile dimensions (e.g., hardness/softness, roughness/smoothness) have been uncovered, such as those between sweetness and softness and between roughness and sourness. However, a dimension that has been long overlooked, despite its pervasiveness and importance in everyday experiences, relates to tactile vibrations. The present study aimed to fill this gap and investigate crossmodal correspondences between basic tastes and vibrations. In the present study (N = 72), we uncovered these associations by having participants sample basic taste (i.e., sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami) aqueous solutions and chose the frequency of vibrations, delivered via a consumer-grade subwoofer wristband on their dominant hand, that they most strongly associated with each taste. We found that sourness was most strongly associated with frequencies around 98 Hz, and that sweetness and umami were associated with frequencies around 77 Hz. These correspondences may, to different extents, be based on affective and semantic mechanisms. The findings have relevant implications for theoretical research on multisensory integration and perception and the potential future applications of these associations, through wearable technologies, to enhance eating experiences and promote healthier eating habits.

Sensitive to music? Examining the crossmodal effect of audition on sweet taste sensitivity

Previous research has shown that music can influence taste perception. While most studies to date have focused on taste intensity ratings, less is known about the influence of musical stimuli on other parameters of taste function. In this within-subjects experiment (N = 73), we tested the effects of three sound conditions (High Sweetness soundtrack - HS; Low Sweetness soundtrack - LS; and Silence - S) on sweet taste sensitivity, namely, detection and recognition. Each participant tasted nine samples of sucrose solutions (from 0 g/L to 20 g/L) under each of the three sound conditions in counterbalanced order. We assessed the lower concentrations at which participants were able to detect (detection threshold) and correctly identify (recognition threshold) a taste sensation. Additionally, the intensity and hedonic ratings of samples above the recognition threshold (7.20 g/L) were analyzed. Affective variations (valence and arousal) in response to the sound conditions were also assessed. Although music did not lead to significant differences in mean detection and recognition thresholds, a larger proportion of sweet taste recognitions was observed at a near-threshold level (2.59 g/L) in the HS condition. The intensity and hedonic ratings of supra-threshold conditions were unaffected by the music condition. Significant differences in self-reported mood in response to the sound conditions were also observed. The present study suggests that the influence of music on the sweet taste perception of basic solutions may depend on the parameter under consideration.

The taste & affect music database: Subjective rating norms for a new set of musical stimuli

Music is a ubiquitous stimulus known to influence human affect, cognition, and behavior. In the context of eating behavior, music has been associated with food choice, intake and, more recently, taste perception. In the latter case, the literature has reported consistent patterns of association between auditory and gustatory attributes, suggesting that individuals reliably recognize taste attributes in musical stimuli. This study presents subjective norms for a new set of 100 instrumental music stimuli, including basic taste correspondences (sweetness, bitterness, saltiness, sourness), emotions (joy, anger, sadness, fear, surprise), familiarity, valence, and arousal. This stimulus set was evaluated by 329 individuals (83.3% women; Mage = 28.12, SD = 12.14), online (n = 246) and in the lab (n = 83). Each participant evaluated a random subsample of 25 soundtracks and responded to self-report measures of mood and taste preferences, as well as the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI). Each soundtrack was evaluated by 68 to 97 participants (Mdn = 83), and descriptive results (means, standard deviations, and confidence intervals) are available as supplemental material at osf.io/2cqa5 . Significant correlations between taste correspondences and emotional/affective dimensions were observed (e.g., between sweetness ratings and pleasant emotions). Sex, age, musical sophistication, and basic taste preferences presented few, small to medium associations with the evaluations of the stimuli. Overall, these results suggest that the new Taste & Affect Music Database is a relevant resource for research and intervention with musical stimuli in the context of crossmodal taste perception and other affective, cognitive, and behavioral domains.

Behavioural Nudges, Physico-Chemical Solutions, and Sensory Strategies to Reduce People’s Salt Consumption

This narrative historical review examines the wide range of approaches that has been trialled/suggested in order to reduce the consumption of salt. While sodium is an essential micronutrient, there is widespread evidence that high levels of consumption are leading to various negative health outcomes. This review summarises the evidence relating to the various approaches that have been put forward to date to help reduce salt consumption over the years, while also highlighting a number of important questions that remains for future research. Solutions to reducing salt consumption include everything from the gradual reduction in salt in foods through to the reduction in the number/size of holes in saltshakers (what one might consider a behavioural nudge). Physico-chemical solutions have included salt replacers, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) through to the asymmetric distribution of salt in processed (e.g., layered) foods. A wide range of sensory approaches to modulating expected and perceived saltiness have also been suggested, including the use of salty aromas, as well as suggesting the use of colour cues, sonic seasoning, and even textural primes. It is currently unclear whether different salty aromas can be combined to increase odour-induced taste enhancement (OITE) effectiveness. In the years ahead, it will be interesting to assess how long such solutions remain effective, as well as whether different solutions can be combined to help reduce salt consumption without having to compromise on taste/flavour

Impact of music on the dynamic perception of coffee and evoked emotions evaluated by temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) and emotions (TDE)

The aim of the present work was to study the temporal effect of music on sensory perception and on the emotional changes while drinking coffee. Two different commercial filter coffees were evaluated by a group of 48 consumers using the Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) method. The description was performed in silence and also while listening to two different musical fragments: one with a "sweet" connotation and the other with a "bitter" one. Under the same conditions (drinking coffee with and without musical stimuli), a different group of 72 consumers evaluated their perceived emotions (joy, fear, neutral, rejection, disgust, surprise, sadness and anger) by Temporal Dominance of Emotions (TDE). Data was analyzed by dominance curves and by ANOVA and MANOVA of the durations of dominance (for emotions and sensations). Coffee perception, in both cases, was modified by the musical stimuli. The duration of dominance of bitter was increased in the presence of "bitter" music, while it decreased with the "sweet" music. Moreover, the sweet attribute was practically not chosen for describing the coffee on its own, but its choice and duration as dominant increased while listening to the "sweet" musical fragment. Music had a larger impact on the perceived emotions. The "sweet" music was related to the emotion of joy, which was accompanied by surprise and also some sadness when drinking coffee (regardless of the type of coffee being drunk). The "bitter" music was linked to the emotions anger and fear. The effect of "sonic seasoning" and translation of emotions with a familiar product was observed.

Commercializing Sonic Seasoning in Multisensory Offline Experiential Events and Online Tasting Experiences

The term "sonic seasoning" refers to the deliberate pairing of sound/music with taste/flavour in order to enhance, or modify, the multisensory tasting experience. Although the recognition that people experience a multitude of crossmodal correspondences between stimuli in the auditory and chemical senses originally emerged from the psychophysics laboratory, the last decade has seen an explosion of interest in the use and application of sonic seasoning research findings, in a range of multisensory experiential events and online offerings. These marketing-led activations have included a variety of different approaches, from curating pre-composed music selections that have the appropriate sonic qualities (such as pitch or timbre), to the composition of bespoke music/soundscapes that match the specific taste/flavour of particular food or beverage products. Moreover, given that our experience of flavour often changes over time and frequently contains multiple distinct elements, there is also scope to more closely match the sonic seasoning to the temporal evolution of the various components (or notes) of the flavour experience. We review a number of case studies of the use of sonic seasoning, highlighting some of the challenges and opportunities associated with the various approaches, and consider the intriguing interplay between physical and digital (online) experiences. Taken together, the various examples reviewed here help to illustrate the growing commercial relevance of sonic seasoning research.

The cognitive development of food taste perception in a food tourism destination: A gastrophysics approach

This study aims to explore the nature and processes involved in the cognitive development of food tourist's taste perception and identify cognitive factors influencing their food taste experience in the context of a food tourism destination. Adopting a gastrophysics approach, this exploratory qualitative research analyses food taste perceptions of Chinese domestic tourists during their visit to the Hangzhou Cuisine Museum and its associated restaurants. The findings suggest that prior knowledge formation as a manifestation of cognitive signs relating to Hangzhou cuisine and interpretive cognitive information acquired at the museum exhibition, greatly affect the tourists' local food taste experiences: these comprise menu selection and appetitive responses in textual, visual and gustatory senses. This paper sheds light on important theoretical and practical implications for stakeholders concerning tourist experiences around food taste perception in food tourism destinations and attractions.

Sounds Healthy: Modelling sound-evoked consumer food choice through visual attention

Food choice is a multifaceted construct that is not solely guided by our internal incentives. In fact, sensory scientist, consumer psychologists, and marketers have demonstrated that external ambient cues, including background music, can influence myriads of subconscious consumer behaviors, effectively leading to increased sales of food and beverages. However, the vast majority of literature in on this topic has thus far been confined to monocultural field studies in which the underlying mechanisms of food choice are unexplored. We therefore studied the explicit and implicit effects of custom-composed soundtracks on food choices and eye-movements in consumers from both 'East' and 'West'. Firstly, based on the results from a pre-study (N = 396), we composed a 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' soundtrack. Subsequently, we recruited 215 participants from China (n = 114) and Denmark (n = 101) respectively for in an in-laboratory eye-tracking food choice paradigm. For each culture, half of the participants listened to the 'healthy' soundtrack and the other half to the 'unhealthy' soundtrack during the experiment. Chi-square tests of independence revealed that across cultures, the healthy (vs. unhealthy) soundtrack led to more healthy food choices. Similarly, the generalized linear mixed models showed that the healthy soundtrack induced more and longer fixations on healthy (vs. unhealthy) food. Finally, a multiple mediation analysis signified a partial mediation effect of sound on food choice through the mediators of fixation duration, fixation count, and revisit count. Our results indicate that, with strategically chosen soundscapes, it is possible to influence consumers' decision-making processes and guide their attention towards healthier foods, providing valuable knowledge for local as well as global food business.

Sonic Seasoning and Other Multisensory Influences on the Coffee Drinking Experience

The coffee drinking experience undoubtedly depends greatly on the quality of the coffee bean and the method of preparation. However, beyond the product-intrinsic qualities of the beverage itself, there are also a host of other product-extrinsic factors that have been shown to influence the coffee-drinking experience. This review summarizes the influence of everything from the multisensory atmosphere through to the sound of coffee preparation, and from the typeface on the coffee packaging through the drinking vessel. Furthermore, the emerging science around sonic seasoning, whereby specific pieces of music or soundscapes, either pre-composed or bespoke, are used to bring out specific aspects in the taste (e.g., sweetness or bitterness) or aroma/flavor (nutty, dark chocolate, dried fruit notes, etc.) of a coffee beverage is also discussed in depth. Relevant related research with other complex drinks such as beer and wine are also mentioned where relevant.

Crossmodal congruency effects between sound and food pictures in a forced-choice task

Research using short musical sequences and musical tracks created by means of computer algorithms has demonstrated that individuals with or without musical skills can match these soundtracks to specific tastes with above-chance accuracy. More recently, a study that investigated implicit effects associated with crossmodal congruency/incongruency between auditory cues and food images found that such soundtracks are effective in eliciting facilitating effects of taste quality classification with congruent food images as well. In the present study, we tested whether this crossmodal congruency between auditory cues and food images may also influence food image choice by means of a forced-choice task. We selected and used sweet and salty soundtracks as stimuli and food images including both low- and high-calorie exemplars and asked participants to select which food they would prefer to eat (one sweet and one salty) while listening to the soundtracks. We found a general greater proportion of food choices in the soundtracks matching tastes conditions, and that soundtracks matching tastes are effective in influencing congruent food image choices, supporting previous research and adding new interesting outcomes.

The Effects of Ethnically Congruent Music on Eye Movements and Food Choice-A Cross-Cultural Comparison between Danish and Chinese Consumers

Musical fit refers to the congruence between music and attributes of a food or product in context, which can prime consumer behavior through semantic networks in memory. The vast majority of research on this topic dealing with musical fit in a cultural context has thus far been limited to monocultural groups in field studies, where uncontrolled confounds can potentially influence the study outcome. To overcome these limitations, and in order to explore the effects of ethnically congruent music on visual attention and food choice across cultures, the present study recruited 199 participants from China (n = 98) and Denmark (n = 101) for an in-laboratory food choice paradigm with eye-tracking data collection. For each culture group, the study used a between-subject design with half of the participants listening to only instrumental "Eastern" music and the other half only listening to instrumental "Western" music, while both groups engaged in a food choice task involving "Eastern" and "Western" food. Chi-square tests revealed a clear ethnic congruency effect between music and food choice across culture, whereby Eastern (vs. Western) food was chosen more during the Eastern music condition, and Western (vs. Eastern) food was chosen more in the Western music condition. Furthermore, results from a generalized linear mixed model suggested that Chinese participants fixated more on Western (vs. Eastern) food when Western music was played, whereas Danish participants fixated more on Eastern (vs. Western) food when Eastern music was played. Interestingly, no such priming effects were found when participants listened to music from their own culture, suggesting that music-evoked visual attention may be culturally dependent. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that ambient music can have a significant impact on consumers' explicit and implicit behaviors, while at the same time highlighting the importance of culture-specific sensory marketing applications in the global food industry.

Factors influencing the choice of beer: A review

Research on those variables that have been shown to influence the consumer's choice of beer is reviewed. The focus is on the choice of whether to drink beer as opposed to a beverage from another category, and to a greater extent, the choice between different types or styles of beer. Inspired by previous research on a diverse array of factors that have been shown to influence food and beverage choice, the review examines how beer choice is driven by consumer variables (covering biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors), product-intrinsic attributes (the sensory aspects of the beer itself), product-extrinsic attributes (external sensory characteristics, such as packaging), and contextual and environmental influences. These situational factors refer to variables such as the location where choice/consumption takes place (i.e., on- versus off-trade), as well as the context, occasion, and reason for drinking. Current trends related to choice and consumption, such as the emerging interest in beer-food pairing, are also examined. The review groups these attributes which affect people's beer wanting, choice, and purchase in order to understand the beer consumer's choice process. Along with general conclusions, a number of key directions for future research are also presented, given that the relative contribution of each type of factor on consumer's choice behaviour is still unclear.

Fixation Differences in Spatial Visual Perception During Multi-sensory Stimulation

The mood and atmosphere of a service setting are essential factors in the way customers evaluate their shopping experience in a retail store environment. Scholars have shown that background music has a strong effect on consumer behavior. Retailers design novel environments in which appropriate music can elevate the shopping experience. While previous findings highlight the effects of background music on consumer behavior, the extent to which recognition of store atmosphere varies with genre of background music in sales spaces is unknown. We conducted an eye tracking experiment to evaluate the effect of background music on the perceived atmosphere of a service setting. We used a 2 (music genre: jazz song with slow tempo vs. dance song with fast tempo) × 1 (visual stimuli: image of coffee shop) within-subject design to test the effect of music genre on visual perception of a physical environment. Results show that the fixation values during the slow tempo music were at least two times higher than the fixation values during the fast tempo music and that the blink values during the fast tempo music were at least two times higher than the blink values during the slow tempo music. Notably, initial and maximum concentration differed by music type. Our findings also indicate that differences in scan paths and locations between the slow tempo music and the fast tempo music changed over time. However, average fixation values were not significantly different between the two music types.

Crossmodal Correspondences in the Sounds of Chinese Instruments

People tend to associate stimuli from different sensory modalities, a phenomenon known as crossmodal correspondences. We conducted two experiments to investigate how Chinese participants associated musical notes produced by four types of Chinese instruments (bowed strings, plucked strings, winds, and percussion instruments) with different colors, taste terms, and fabric textures. Specifically, the participants were asked to select a sound to match each color patch or taste term in Experiment 1 and to match the experience of touching each fabric in Experiment 2. The results demonstrated some associations between pitch and color, taste term, or the smoothness of fabrics. Moreover, certain types of Chinese instruments were preferentially chosen to match some of the colors, taste terms, and the texture of certain fabrics. These findings therefore provided insights about the perception of Chinese music and shed light on how to apply the multisensory features of sounds to enhance the composition, performance, and appreciation of music.

An overture to overeating: The cross-modal effects of acoustic pitch on food preferences and serving behavior

Billions of dollars are spent annually with the aim of enticing consumers to purchase food. Yet despite the prevalence of such advertising, little is known about how the actual sensation of this advertising media affects consumer behavior, including consequential choices regarding food. This paper explores the effect of acoustic pitch in food advertising, demonstrating in two studies, including a field study in a live retail environment, how the perception of pitch in advertising can impact food desirability and decisions regarding serving size. In study 1, a field study, pitch affects actual serving sizes and purchase behavior in a live, self-serve retail setting, with low pitch leading to larger serving sizes. Study 2 demonstrates how low pitch increases desire for a food product among hungry consumers, and that this effect is mediated by perceptions of size and how filling consumers believe the product will be. We discuss these results in the context of cross-modal correspondence and mental imagery.

Assessing the influence of music on wine perception among wine professionals

Several recent studies have demonstrated that music can significantly influence the eating/drinking experience. It is not clear, however, whether this influence would be moderated by the expertise of the taster. In the experiments reported here, we tested a large group (N = 154) of very experienced wine tasters—the majority of whom were professionals working in the wine business—at a winemaking conference. The first study assessed the impact of putatively “sweet” and “sour” soundtracks on taste evaluation, whereas the second study assessed more subtle wine‐specific terminology such as length, balance, and body. The results revealed that the effect of music on wine perception can indeed be demonstrated in wine experts. Moreover, the amount of wine tasting experience, as measured in years, did not moderate the influence of music on sensory and hedonic wine evaluation. This result suggests that the aforementioned auditory modulation of drinking experience is not influenced by the increased analytical abilities afforded by traditional wine tasting expertise.

Music to Make Your Mouth Water? Assessing the Potential Influence of Sour Music on Salivation

People robustly associate various sound attributes with specific smells/tastes, and soundtracks that are associated with specific tastes can influence people’s evaluation of the taste of food and drink. However, it is currently unknown whether such soundtracks directly impact the eating experience via physiological changes (an embodiment account), or whether they act at a higher cognitive level, or both. The present research assessed a version of the embodiment account, where a soundtrack associated with sourness is hypothesized to induce a physiological response in the listener by increasing salivary flow. Salivation was measured while participants were exposed to three different experimental conditions – a sour soundtrack, a muted lemon video showing a man eating a lemon, and a silent baseline condition. The results revealed that salivation during the lemon video condition was significantly greater than in the sour soundtrack and baseline conditions. However, contrary to our hypothesis, there was no significant difference between salivation levels in the sour soundtrack compared to the baseline condition. These results are discussed in terms of potential mechanisms underlying the auditory modulation of taste perception/evaluation.

"Turn Up the Taste": Assessing the Role of Taste Intensity and Emotion in Mediating Crossmodal Correspondences between Basic Tastes and Pitch

People intuitively match basic tastes to sounds of different pitches, and the matches that they make tend to be consistent across individuals. It is, though, not altogether clear what governs such crossmodal mappings between taste and auditory pitch. Here, we assess whether variations in taste intensity influence the matching of taste to pitch as well as the role of emotion in mediating such crossmodal correspondences. Participants were presented with 5 basic tastants at 3 concentrations. In Experiment 1, the participants rated the tastants in terms of their emotional arousal and valence/pleasantness, and selected a musical note (from 19 possible pitches ranging from C2 to C8) and loudness that best matched each tastant. In Experiment 2, the participants made emotion ratings and note matches in separate blocks of trials, then made emotion ratings for all 19 notes. Overall, the results of the 2 experiments revealed that both taste quality and concentration exerted a significant effect on participants' loudness selection, taste intensity rating, and valence and arousal ratings. Taste quality, not concentration levels, had a significant effect on participants' choice of pitch, but a significant positive correlation was observed between individual perceived taste intensity and pitch choice. A significant and strong correlation was also demonstrated between participants' valence assessments of tastants and their valence assessments of the best-matching musical notes. These results therefore provide evidence that: 1) pitch-taste correspondences are primarily influenced by taste quality, and to a lesser extent, by perceived intensity; and 2) such correspondences may be mediated by valence/pleasantness.