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Bacchetta J, Bernardor J, Garnier C, Naud C, Ranchin B. Hyperphosphatemia and Chronic Kidney Disease: A Major Daily Concern Both in Adults and in Children. Calcif Tissue Int 2021; 108:116-127. [PMID: 31996964 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-020-00665-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hyperphosphatemia is common in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Often seen as the "silent killer" because of its dramatic effect on vascular calcifications, hyperphosphatemia explains, at least partly, the onset of the complex mineral and bone disorders associated with CKD (CKD-MBD), together with hypocalcemia and decreased 1-25(OH)2 vitamin D levels. The impact of CKD-MBD may be immediate with abnormalities of bone and mineral metabolism with secondary hyperparathyroidism and increased FGF23 levels, or delayed with poor growth, bone deformities, fractures, and vascular calcifications, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. The global management of CKD-MBD has been detailed in international guidelines for adults and children, however, with difficulties to obtain an agreement on the ideal PTH targets. The clinical management of hyperphosphatemia is a daily challenge for nephrologists and pediatric nephrologists, notably because of the phosphate overload in occidental diets that is mainly due to the phosphate "hidden" in food additives. The management begins with a dietary restriction of phosphate intake, and is followed by the use of calcium-based and non-calcium-based phosphate binders, and/or the intensification of dialysis. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the pathophysiology of hyperphosphatemia in CKD, with a focus on its deleterious effects and a description of the clinical management of hyperphosphatemia in a more global setting of CKD-MBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Bacchetta
- Service de Néphrologie, Rhumatologie et Dermatologie Pédiatriques, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rénales Rares, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rares du Calcium et du Phosphore, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France.
- Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.
- INSERM 1033 Research Unit, Lyon, France.
| | - Julie Bernardor
- Unité de Néphrologie pédiatrique, Hôpital L'Archet, CHU de Nice, Nice, France
| | - Charlotte Garnier
- Service de Néphrologie, Rhumatologie et Dermatologie Pédiatriques, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rénales Rares, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rares du Calcium et du Phosphore, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
| | - Corentin Naud
- Service de Néphrologie, Rhumatologie et Dermatologie Pédiatriques, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rénales Rares, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rares du Calcium et du Phosphore, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
| | - Bruno Ranchin
- Service de Néphrologie, Rhumatologie et Dermatologie Pédiatriques, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rénales Rares, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Rares du Calcium et du Phosphore, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
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Rastogi A, Bhatt N, Rossetti S, Beto J. Management of Hyperphosphatemia in End-Stage Renal Disease: A New Paradigm. J Ren Nutr 2020; 31:21-34. [PMID: 32386937 DOI: 10.1053/j.jrn.2020.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone and mineral metabolism becomes dysregulated with progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and increasing levels of parathyroid hormone serve as an adaptive response to maintain normal phosphorus and calcium levels. In end-stage renal disease, this response becomes maladaptive and high levels of phosphorus may occur. We summarize strategies to control hyperphosphatemia based on a systematic literature review of clinical trial and real-world observational data on phosphorus control in hemodialysis patients with CKD-mineral bone disorder (CKD-MBD). These studies suggest that current management options (diet and lifestyle changes; regular dialysis treatment; and use of phosphate binders, vitamin D, calcimimetics) have their own benefits and limitations with variable clinical outcomes. A more integrated approach to phosphorus control in dialysis patients may be necessary, incorporating measurement of multiple biomarkers of CKD-MBD pathophysiology (calcium, phosphorus, and parathyroid hormone) and correlation between diet adjustments and CKD-MBD drugs, which may facilitate improved patient management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjay Rastogi
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California.
| | - Nisha Bhatt
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medical Affairs, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California
| | - Sandro Rossetti
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medical Affairs, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California
| | - Judith Beto
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois
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Sawin DA, Ma L, Stennett A, Ofsthun N, Himmele R, Kossmann RJ, Maddux FW. Phosphates in medications: Impact on dialysis patients
. Clin Nephrol 2020; 93:163-171. [PMID: 32049627 PMCID: PMC7264818 DOI: 10.5414/cn109853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintaining phosphorus balance in in-center hemodialysis (ICHD) patients is problematic despite recommended dietary restriction, dialysis, and phosphate binder use. Rarely is P content in prescribed medications considered, but this source should raise concern. Data was obtained from the Fresenius Kidney Care (FKC) electronic data warehouse Knowledge Center and MedReview-eRx accessed Surescripts, housing > 80% of US-filled prescriptions. Adult FKC ICHD patients prescribed ≥ 1 medication in the MedReview-eRx database were analyzed (695,759 prescriptions). Information collected included medication dose, dose unit, dose timing, strength, start and stop dates, refills, demographic information, admission history, and modality type. Numbers of patients, prescriptions by individual medication, and drug class were then analyzed. Medications prescribed > 100 times were reported. Median doses/day (number of tablets) were calculated for each medication (open order on randomly selected day). Phosphate content of medications taken in FKC clinics was assessed using routinely used pharmacology references, and potential resulting phosphate and pill burden were also calculated. The top five prescribed drug classes in FKC dialysis patients were calcium-channel blockers (22%), proton pump inhibitors (PPIs; 18%), acetaminophen-opioid (AO; 13%), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi; 10%), and α2-agonists (9%). The maximum phosphate added for different medications varied by manufacturer. For instance, at median daily doses, phosphate contributions from the top five medications prescribed were 112 mg for amlodipine, 116.2 mg from lisinopril, 6.7 mg from clonidine, 0 mg from acetaminophen, and 200 mg for omeprazole. Prescribing these together could increase the daily phosphate load by 428 mg, forcing the patient to exceed the recommended daily intake (RDI) with food and drink. Phosphate content in medications prescribed to HD patients can substantially contribute to the daily phosphate load and, in combination, may even exceed the daily recommended dietary phosphate intake. Healthcare providers should monitor all medications containing phosphate prescribed in order to minimize risk of uncontrolled hyperphosphatemia and poor adherence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dixie-Ann Sawin
- Fresenius Medical Care North America, Renal Therapies Group, and
| | - Lin Ma
- Fresenius Kidney Care, Waltham, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Rainer Himmele
- Fresenius Medical Care North America, Renal Therapies Group, and
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McAlister L, Pugh P, Greenbaum L, Haffner D, Rees L, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Nelms C, Oosterveld M, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Warady B, Walle JV, Shaw V, Shroff R. The dietary management of calcium and phosphate in children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis-clinical practice recommendation from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 2020; 35:501-518. [PMID: 31667620 PMCID: PMC6969014 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-019-04370-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In children with chronic kidney disease (CKD), optimal control of bone and mineral homeostasis is essential, not only for the prevention of debilitating skeletal complications and achieving adequate growth but also for preventing vascular calcification and cardiovascular disease. Complications of mineral bone disease (MBD) are common and contribute to the high morbidity and mortality seen in children with CKD. Although several studies describe the prevalence of abnormal calcium, phosphate, parathyroid hormone, and vitamin D levels as well as associated clinical and radiological complications and their medical management, little is known about the dietary requirements and management of calcium (Ca) and phosphate (P) in children with CKD. The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT) is an international team of pediatric renal dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, who develop clinical practice recommendations (CPRs) for the nutritional management of various aspects of renal disease management in children. We present CPRs for the dietary intake of Ca and P in children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis (CKD2-5D), describing the common Ca- and P-containing foods, the assessment of dietary Ca and P intake, requirements for Ca and P in healthy children and necessary modifications for children with CKD2-5D, and dietary management of hypo- and hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. The statements have been graded, and statements with a low grade or those that are opinion-based must be carefully considered and adapted to individual patient needs based on the clinical judgment of the treating physician and dietitian. These CPRs will be regularly audited and updated by the PRNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise McAlister
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, and University College London, Institute of Child Health, WC1N 3JH, London, UK
| | - Pearl Pugh
- Nottingham Children's Hospital, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Dieter Haffner
- Children's Hospital, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lesley Rees
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, and University College London, Institute of Child Health, WC1N 3JH, London, UK
| | - Caroline Anderson
- Southampton Children's Hospital, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
| | | | | | - Michiel Oosterveld
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fabio Paglialonga
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca'Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - José Renken-Terhaerdt
- Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jetta Tuokkola
- Children's Hospital and Clinical Nutrition Unit, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Vanessa Shaw
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, and University College London, Institute of Child Health, WC1N 3JH, London, UK
- University of Plymouth and University College London Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Rukshana Shroff
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, and University College London, Institute of Child Health, WC1N 3JH, London, UK.
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Li J, Wang L, Han M, Xiong Y, Liao R, Li Y, Sun S, Maharjan A, Su B. The role of phosphate-containing medications and low dietary phosphorus-protein ratio in reducing intestinal phosphorus load in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nutr Diabetes 2019; 9:14. [PMID: 30944300 PMCID: PMC6447592 DOI: 10.1038/s41387-019-0080-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) is a common complication in patients experiencing end-stage renal disease (ESRD). It includes abnormalities in bone and mineral metabolism and vascular calcification. Hyperphosphatemia is a major risk factor leading to morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. Increased mortality has been observed in patients with ESRD, with serum phosphorus levels of >5.5 mg/dL. Therefore, control of hyperphosphatemia is a major therapeutic goal in the prevention and treatment of CKD-MBD. The treatment of hyperphosphatemia includes decreasing intestinal phosphorus load and increasing renal phosphorus removal. Decreasing the intestinal load of phosphorus plays a major role in the prevention and treatment of CKD-MBD. Among the dietary sources of phosphorus, some of the commonly prescribed medications have also been reported to contain phosphorus. However, drugs are often ignored even though they act as a potential source of phosphorus. Similarly, although proteins are the major source of dietary phosphorus, reducing protein intake can increase mortality in patients with CKD. Recently, the importance of phosphorus/protein ratio in food have been reported to be a sensitive marker for controlling dietary intake of phosphorus. This review summarizes the progress in the research on phosphate content in drugs as an excipient and the various aspects of dietary management of hyperphosphatemia in patients with CKD, with special emphasis on dietary restriction of phosphorus with low dietary phosphate/protein ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiameng Li
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Liya Wang
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Mei Han
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuqin Xiong
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Ruoxi Liao
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Yupei Li
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Si Sun
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Anil Maharjan
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Baihai Su
- Department of Nephrology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, China.
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Brauer A, Waheed S, Singh T, Maursetter L. Improvement in Hyperphosphatemia Using Phosphate Education and Planning Talks. J Ren Nutr 2019; 29:156-162. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jrn.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
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KDIGO 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl (2011) 2017; 7:1-59. [PMID: 30675420 PMCID: PMC6340919 DOI: 10.1016/j.kisu.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 956] [Impact Index Per Article: 136.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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Imtiaz R, Hawken S, McCormick BB, Leung S, Hiremath S, Zimmerman DL. Diabetes Mellitus and Younger Age Are Risk Factors for Hyperphosphatemia in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients. Nutrients 2017; 9:E152. [PMID: 28218647 PMCID: PMC5331583 DOI: 10.3390/nu9020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperphosphatemia has been associated with adverse outcomes in patients with end stage kidney disease (ESKD). The purpose of this study was to determine risk factors for hyperphosphatemia in ESKD patients treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD). This information will be used to develop a patient specific phosphate binder application to facilitate patient self-management of serum phosphate. Adult PD patients documented their food, beverage, and phosphate binder intake for three days using a dietitian developed food journal. Phosphate content of meals was calculated using the ESHA Food Processor SQL Software (ESHA Research, Salem, UT, USA). Clinic biochemistry tests and an adequacy assessment (Baxter Adequest program) were done. Univariate logistic regression was used to determine predictors of serum phosphate >1.78 mmol/L. A multivariable logistic regression model was then fit including those variables that achieved a significance level of p < 0.20 in univariate analyses. Sixty patients (38 men, 22 women) completed the protocol; they were 60 ± 17 years old, 50% had a history of diabetes mellitus (DM) and 33% had hyperphosphatemia (PO₄ > 1.78 mmol/L). In univariate analysis, the variables associated with an increased risk of hyperphosphatemia with a p-value < 0.2 were male gender (p = 0.13), younger age (0.07), presence of DM (0.005), higher dose of calcium carbonate (0.08), higher parathyroid serum concentration (0.08), lower phosphate intake (0.03), lower measured glomerular filtration rate (0.15), higher phosphate excretion (0.11), and a higher body mass index (0.15). After multivariable logistic regression analysis, younger age (odds ratio (OR) 0.023 per decade, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.00065 to 0.455; p = 0.012), presence of diabetes (OR 11.40, 95 CI 2.82 to 61.55; p = 0.0003), and measured GFR (OR 0.052 per mL/min decrease; 95% CI 0.0025 to 0.66) were associated with hyperphosphatemia. Our results support that younger age and diabetes mellitus are significant risk factors for hyperphosphatemia. These findings warrant further investigation to determine the potential mechanisms that predispose younger patients and those with DM to hyperphosphatemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rameez Imtiaz
- Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada.
| | - Steven Hawken
- School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Clinical Epidemiology Program, Ottawa, ON K1Y 4E9, Canada.
| | - Brendan B McCormick
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Kidney Research Centre, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 7W9, Canada.
| | - Simon Leung
- Ottawa Hospital Academic Family Health Team, Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON K1Y 4K7, Canada.
| | - Swapnil Hiremath
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Kidney Research Centre, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 7W9, Canada.
| | - Deborah L Zimmerman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Kidney Research Centre, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 7W9, Canada.
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Sherman RA. Hyperphosphatemia in Dialysis Patients: Beyond Nonadherence to Diet and Binders. Am J Kidney Dis 2015; 67:182-6. [PMID: 26508681 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Hyperphosphatemia in dialysis patients is routinely attributed to nonadherence to diet, prescribed phosphate binders, or both. The role of individual patient variability in other determinants of phosphate control is not widely recognized. In a manner that cannot be explained by dialysis parameters or serum phosphate levels, dialytic removal of phosphate may vary by >400mg per treatment. Similarly, enteral phosphate absorption, unexplained by diet or vitamin D intake, may differ by ≥250mg/d among patients. Binder efficacy also varies among patients, with 2-fold differences reported. One or more elements of this triple threat-varying dialytic removal, phosphate absorption, and phosphate binding-may account for hyperphosphatemia in dialysis patients rather than nonadherence to therapy. Just as the cause(s) of hyperphosphatemia may vary, so too may an individual patient's response to different therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Sherman
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ.
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