Contradictory findings in the study of emotional false memory: a review on the inadvisability of controlling valence and arousal

Emotional false memories are the erroneous recollection of events accompanied by an emotional experience. In high-risk domains like psychotherapy and the legal system, emotional false memories are of particular importance. Despite the systematic research conducted on emotional false memories in recent years, findings remain contradictory. Some studies have suggested that negative emotion reduces false memories, while others have suggested that negative emotion increases false memories. Research has mainly employed words and pictures as experimental stimuli, and studies using both types of memory stimuli are reviewed here. From this examination, it emerged that the main reasons for contradictory findings are as follows: (1) different materials have varying effects on inducing false memories, with pictures demonstrating a memory advantage compared to words; (2) recall and recognition tests have been used interchangeably, leading to different false-memory effects depending on the memory test employed; and (3) different studies have adopted different levels of control over valence and arousal when manipulating emotional variables. Future studies should distinguish between the use of different memory materials, examine specific differences in recall and recognition tests, and measure the impact of specific emotions on false memory beyond the dimensions of valence and arousal.

Pupil response patterns distinguish true from false memories

Memory is reconstructive and error-prone, which make memory illusions very common in everyday life. However, studying memory illusions can provide valuable insights into how memory works. Pupil response has emerged, in recent years, as an indicator of memory encoding and retrieval, however its validity as a measure of memory success is debated. In this study, we explored whether pupil response patterns can differentiate true from false memories and whether variations in the temporal dynamics of pupil response can elucidate the mechanisms underlying false memory creation. The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm was employed to generate false memories in two separate experiments involving visual and auditory stimuli. Pupil responses effectively differentiated true from false memories based on variations in pupil amplitude at different temporal components. This discrimination remained consistent across both experiments, with slightly stronger effects in the auditory condition, aligning with the more pronounced false memory effects in this condition. Notably, differential pupil responses between true and false memories varied based on the type of memory involved at recognition. These findings provide valuable insights into the cognitive processes underlying memory distortions, with implications for theoretical frameworks and real-world contexts.

Context and target recollection for words and pictures in young adults with developmental dyslexia

Introduction

The specificity of memory functioning in developmental dyslexia is well known and intensively studied. However, most research has been devoted to working memory, and many uncertain issues about episodic memory remain practically unexplored. Moreover, most studies have investigated memory in children and adolescents-much less research has been conducted on adults. The presented study explored the specificity of context and target memory functioning for verbal and nonverbal stimuli in young adults with developmental dyslexia.

Methods

The dual recollection theory, which distinguishes context recollection, target recollection, and familiarity as the processes underlying memory performance in the conjoint recognition paradigm, was adopted as the theoretical basis for the analysis of memory processes. The employed measurement model, a multinomial processing tree model, allowed us to assess the individual contributions of the basic memory processes to memory task performance.

Results

The research sample consisted of 82 young adults (41 with diagnosed dyslexia). The results showed significant differences in both verbal and nonverbal memory and context and target recollection between the dyslexic and the typically developing groups. These differences are not global; they only involve specific memory processes.

Discussion

In line with previous studies using multinomial modeling, this shows that memory functioning in dyslexia cannot be characterized as a simple impairment but is a much more complex phenomenon that includes compensatory mechanisms. Implications of the findings and possible limitations are discussed, pointing to the need for further investigation of the relationship between context memory functioning and developmental dyslexia, taking into account the type of material being processed.

False denials increase false memories for trauma-related discussions

False denials are sometimes used to cope with traumatic experiences. We examined whether false denials can affect true and false memory production for a traumatic event and conversations surrounding the trauma. One hundred and twenty-six participants watched a trauma analogue video of a car crash before being randomly asked in a discussion with the experimenter to (1) respond honestly or (2) falsely deny that certain details happened in the video. After one week, all participants received misinformation about the discussion with the experimenter and the car crash. Finally, all participants were instructed to respond truthfully in a source memory task. Participants who falsely denied information during the first session were statistically significantly more prone than honest participants to omit details they denied and to report misinformation about what was discussed in the first session. Our work suggests that false denials of a traumatic experience might lead to both forgetting and increased false memory levels for earlier conversations about the event.

Remembering Molly: Immediate and delayed false memory formation after acute MDMA exposure

The entactogen 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is increasingly being recognized for its therapeutic potential but is also widespread in nightlife settings where it may co-occur with crime. Since previous research detected impaired verbal memory during acute MDMA intoxication, understanding the drug's ramifications in an applied legal context becomes crucial. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to examine acute and delayed effects of MDMA (75 mg) on false memory in 60 healthy volunteers with a history of MDMA use, using three well-established false memory methods: a basic, associative word list (Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM)) paradigm and two applied misinformation tasks using a virtual reality crime. Memory was tested immediately (encoding and retrieval under drug influence) and 1 week later (retrieval when sober). Small MDMA-induced impairments of true memory in the word list task were detected at both time points. MDMA increased false memory for related but non-critical lures during the immediate test, and decreased false memory for critical lures after a delay. Episodic memory assessed in the misinformation tasks was not consistently affected. Findings indicate a complex memory profile but no heightened vulnerability to external suggestion in response to MDMA intoxication. Recommendations for future applied legal psychological research include adding measures of recall on top of recognition, using study designs that separate the different memory phases, and potentially testing higher doses. Further research on false memories and suggestibility using imagination procedures can also be relevant for the clinical context.

A scientific theory of gist communication and misinformation resistance, with implications for health, education, and policy

A framework is presented for understanding how misinformation shapes decision-making, which has cognitive representations of gist at its core. I discuss how the framework goes beyond prior work, and how it can be implemented so that valid scientific messages are more likely to be effective, remembered, and shared through social media, while misinformation is resisted. The distinction between mental representations of the rote facts of a message-its verbatim representation-and its gist explains several paradoxes, including the frequent disconnect between knowing facts and, yet, making decisions that seem contrary to those facts. Decision makers can falsely remember the gist as seen or heard even when they remember verbatim facts. Indeed, misinformation can be more compelling than information when it provides an interpretation of reality that makes better sense than the facts. Consequently, for many issues, scientific information and misinformation are in a battle for the gist. A fuzzy-processing preference for simple gist explains expectations for antibiotics, the spread of misinformation about vaccination, and responses to messages about global warming, nuclear proliferation, and natural disasters. The gist, which reflects knowledge and experience, induces emotions and brings to mind social values. However, changing mental representations is not sufficient by itself; gist representations must be connected to values. The policy choice is not simply between constraining behavior or persuasion-there is another option. Science communication needs to shift from an emphasis on disseminating rote facts to achieving insight, retaining its integrity but without shying away from emotions and values.

Hazy memories in the courtroom: A review of alcohol and other drug effects on false memory and suggestibility

Alcohol and other psychoactive drugs are oftentimes implicated in legal cases. A pertinent question herein is whether such substances might adversely affect testimonies of victims, eyewitnesses, or suspects by propelling the formation of false memory and increasing susceptibility to suggestion. In the current review, we amassed all available evidence on the effects of intoxication on false memory formation and suggestibility, including the substances alcohol, benzodiazepines, cannabis, stimulants, hallucinogens, and antipsychotics. Our review indicated that alcohol and cannabis under certain conditions increased the susceptibility to false memories and/or suggestion with effect sizes ranging from medium to large. When intoxicated during an event, alcohol is most likely to increase this susceptibility at high intoxication levels or after a delay, whereas cannabis exerts detrimental effects during acute intoxication but not necessarily once sober. For other substances, ecologically valid research separating different memory phases is needed. Overall, differences between substances regarding false memory effects exist, suggesting that a nuanced approach is needed when dealing with intoxicated individuals in a legal context.