Endothelin and the neurovascular unit in pediatric traumatic brain injury

Challenging the Pleiotropic Effects of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Geriatric Depression: A Multimodal Case Series Study

BACKGROUND

Although the antidepressant potential of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), the pleiotropic effects in geriatric depression (GD) are poorly investigated. We tested rTMS on depression, cognitive performance, growth/neurotrophic factors, cerebral blood flow (CBF) to transcranial Doppler sonography (TCD), and motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) to TMS in GD.

METHODS

In this case series study, six drug-resistant subjects (median age 68.0 years) underwent MEPs at baseline and after 3 weeks of 10 Hz rTMS on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The percentage change of serum nerve growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, brain-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor-1, and angiogenin was obtained. Assessments were performed at baseline, and at the end of rTMS; psychocognitive tests were also repeated after 1, 3, and 6 months.

RESULTS

Chronic cerebrovascular disease was evident in five patients. No adverse/undesirable effect was reported. An improvement in mood was observed after rTMS but not at follow-up. Electrophysiological data to TMS remained unchanged, except for an increase in the right median MEP amplitude. TCD and neurotrophic/growth factors did not change.

CONCLUSIONS

We were unable to detect a relevant impact of high-frequency rTMS on mood, cognition, cortical microcircuits, neurotrophic/growth factors, and CBF. Cerebrovascular disease and exposure to multiple pharmacological treatments might have contributed.

Ultrastructural destruction of neurovascular unit in experimental cervical spondylotic myelopathy

Background and purpose

The pathogenesis of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the ultrastructural pathology of neurovascular unit (NVU) during natural development of CSM.

Methods

A total of 24 rats were randomly allocated to the control group and the CSM group. Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) scoring and somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) were used as functional assessments. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE), toluidine blue (TB), and Luxol fast blue (LFB) stains were used for general structure observation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was applied for investigating ultrastructural characteristics.

Results

The evident compression caused significant neurological dysfunction, which was confirmed by the decrease in BBB score and SEP amplitude, as well as the prolongation of SEP latency (P < 0.05). The histopathological findings verified a significant decrease in the amount of Nissl body and myelin area and an increase in vacuolation compared with the control group (P < 0.05). The TEM results revealed ultrastructural destruction of NVU in several forms, including: neuronal degeneration and apoptosis; disruption of axonal cytoskeleton (neurofilaments) and myelin sheath and dystrophy of axonal terminal with dysfunction mitochondria; degenerative oligodendrocyte, astrocyte, and microglial cell inclusions with degenerating axon and dystrophic dendrite; swollen microvascular endothelium and loss of tight junction integrity; corroded basement membrane and collapsed microvascular wall; and proliferated pericyte and perivascular astrocytic endfeet. In the CSM group, reduction was observed in the amount of mitochondria with normal appearance and the number of cristae per mitochondria (P < 0.05), while no substantial drop of synaptic vesicle number was seen (P > 0.05). Significant narrowing of microvascular lumen size was also observed, accompanied by growth in the vascular wall area, endothelial area, basement membrane thickness, astrocytic endfeet area, and pericyte coverage area (rate) (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Altogether, the findings of this study demonstrated ultrastructural destruction of NVU in an experimental CSM model with dorsal-lateral compression, revealing one of the crucial pathophysiological mechanisms of CSM.

A neurovascular unit-on-a-chip: culture and differentiation of human neural stem cells in a three-dimensional microfluidic environment

Biological studies typically rely on a simple monolayer cell culture, which does not reflect the complex functional characteristics of human tissues and organs, or their real response to external stimuli. Microfluidic technology has advantages of high-throughput screening, accurate control of the fluid velocity, low cell consumption, long-term culture, and high integration. By combining the multipotential differentiation of neural stem cells with high throughput and the integrated characteristics of microfluidic technology, an in vitro model of a functionalized neurovascular unit was established using human neural stem cell-derived neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and a functional microvascular barrier. The model comprises a multi-layer vertical neural module and vascular module, both of which were connected with a syringe pump. This provides controllable conditions for cell inoculation and nutrient supply, and simultaneously simulates the process of ischemic/hypoxic injury and the process of inflammatory factors in the circulatory system passing through the blood-brain barrier and then acting on the nerve tissue in the brain. The in vitro functionalized neurovascular unit model will be conducive to central nervous system disease research, drug screening, and new drug development.

Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: An Update on Preclinical Models, Clinical Biomarkers, and the Implications of Cerebrovascular Dysfunction

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of pediatric morbidity and mortality. Recent studies suggest that children and adolescents have worse post-TBI outcomes and take longer to recover than adults. However, the pathophysiology and progression of TBI in the pediatric population are studied to a far lesser extent compared to the adult population. Common causes of TBI in children are falls, sports/recreation-related injuries, non-accidental trauma, and motor vehicle-related injuries. A fundamental understanding of TBI pathophysiology is crucial in preventing long-term brain injury sequelae. Animal models of TBI have played an essential role in addressing the knowledge gaps relating to pTBI pathophysiology. Moreover, a better understanding of clinical biomarkers is crucial to diagnose pTBI and accurately predict long-term outcomes. This review examines the current preclinical models of pTBI, the implications of pTBI on the brain’s vasculature, and clinical pTBI biomarkers. Finally, we conclude the review by speculating on the emerging role of the gut-brain axis in pTBI pathophysiology.

Role of Semaphorins in Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke is one of the major causes of neurological morbidity and mortality in the world. Although the management of ischemic stroke has been improved significantly, it still imposes a huge burden on the health and property. The integrity of the neurovascular unit (NVU) is closely related with the prognosis of ischemic stroke. Growing evidence has shown that semaphorins, a family of axon guidance cues, play a pivotal role in multiple pathophysiological processes in NVU after ischemia, such as regulating the immune system, angiogenesis, and neuroprotection. Modulating the NVU function via semaphorin signaling has a potential to develop a novel therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke. We, therefore, review recent progresses on the role of semphorin family members in neurons, glial cells and vasculature after ischemic stroke.

Cell-to-Cell Interactions Mediating Functional Recovery after Stroke

Ischemic damage in brain tissue triggers a cascade of molecular and structural plastic changes, thus influencing a wide range of cell-to-cell interactions. Understanding and manipulating this scenario of intercellular connections is the Holy Grail for post-stroke neurorehabilitation. Here, we discuss the main findings in the literature related to post-stroke alterations in cell-to-cell interactions, which may be either detrimental or supportive for functional recovery. We consider both neural and non-neural cells, starting from astrocytes and reactive astrogliosis and moving to the roles of the oligodendrocytes in the support of vulnerable neurons and sprouting inhibition. We discuss the controversial role of microglia in neural inflammation after injury and we conclude with the description of post-stroke alterations in pyramidal and GABAergic cells interactions. For all of these sections, we review not only the spontaneous evolution in cellular interactions after ischemic injury, but also the experimental strategies which have targeted these interactions and that are inspiring novel therapeutic strategies for clinical application.

The Complexity of the Blood-Brain Barrier and the Concept of Age-Related Brain Targeting: Challenges and Potential of Novel Solid Lipid-Based Formulations

Diseases that affect the Central Nervous System (CNS) are one of the most exciting challenges of recent years, as they are ubiquitous and affect all ages. Although these disorders show different etiologies, all treatments share the same difficulty represented by the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). This barrier acts as a protective system of the delicate cerebral microenvironment, isolating it and making extremely arduous delivering drugs to the brain. To overtake the obstacles provided by the BBB it is essential to explore the changes that affect it, to understand how to exploit these findings in the study and design of innovative brain targeted formulations. Interestingly, the concept of age-related targeting could prove to be a winning choice, as it allows to consider the type of treatment according to the different needs and peculiarities depending on the disease and the age of onset. In this review was considered the prospective contribution of lipid-based formulations, namely Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), which have been highlighted as able to overcome some limitations of other innovative approaches, thus representing a promising strategy for the non-invasive specific treatment of CNS-related diseases.

Oxidative Stress and the Neurovascular Unit

The neurovascular unit (NVU) is a relatively recent concept that clearly describes the relationship between brain cells and their blood vessels. The components of the NVU, comprising different types of cells, are so interrelated and associated with each other that they are considered as a single functioning unit. For this reason, even slight disturbances in the NVU could severely affect brain homeostasis and health. In this review, we aim to describe the current state of knowledge concerning the role of oxidative stress on the neurovascular unit and the role of a single cell type in the NVU crosstalk.

Neurovascular Units and Neural-Glia Networks in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: from Mechanisms to Translation

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), the most lethal type of stroke, often leads to poor outcomes in the clinic. Due to the complex mechanisms and cell-cell crosstalk during ICH, the neurovascular unit (NVU) was proposed to serve as a promising therapeutic target for ICH research. This review aims to summarize the development of pathophysiological shifts in the NVU and neural-glia networks after ICH. In addition, potential targets for ICH therapy are discussed in this review. Beyond cerebral blood flow, the NVU also plays an important role in protecting neurons, maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, coordinating neuronal activity among supporting cells, forming and maintaining the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and regulating neuroimmune responses. During ICH, NVU dysfunction is induced, along with neuronal cell death, microglia and astrocyte activation, endothelial cell (EC) and tight junction (TJ) protein damage, and BBB disruption. In addition, it has been shown that certain targets and candidates can improve ICH-induced secondary brain injury based on an NVU and neural-glia framework. Moreover, therapeutic approaches and strategies for ICH are discussed.

The Neurovascular Unit: Focus on the Regulation of Arterial Smooth Muscle Cells

The neurovascular unit is a physiological unit present in the brain, which is constituted by elements of the nervous system (neurons and astrocytes) and the vascular system (endothelial and mural cells). This unit is responsible for the homeostasis and regulation of cerebral blood flow. There are two major types of mural cells in the brain, pericytes and smooth muscle cells. At the arterial level, smooth muscle cells are the main components that wrap around the outside of cerebral blood vessels and the major contributors to basal tone maintenance, blood pressure and blood flow distribution. They present several mechanisms by which they regulate both vasodilation and vasoconstriction of cerebral blood vessels and their regulation becomes even more important in situations of injury or pathology. In this review, we discuss the main regulatory mechanisms of brain smooth muscle cells and their contributions to the correct brain homeostasis.

Dysfunction of the neurovascular unit in diabetes-related neurodegeneration

In current aging societies, diabetes mellitus and neurodegenerative diseases represented by Alzheimer's disease are highly prevalent among adults, especially the elderly all over the world. It is worth noting that a substantial body of evidence suggests diabetes contributes to accelerated neurodegenerative processes and the decline of cognition. Over the last few years, some studies have indicated neurovascular uncoupling and disrupted functional connectivity in the early stages of many neurodegenerative diseases, and the concept of the neurovascular unit (NVU) has been highlighted to understand the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative diseases recently. Considering that some components of the NVU are also demonstrated to have abnormal morphology and function under the condition of diabetes, we propose the hypothesis that diabetes may promote the onset and development of neurodegenerative diseases by impairing the integrity of the NVU, named Diabetes-NVU-Neurodegeneration Hypothesis. The existing body of literature supporting the hypothesis and elucidating the underlying mechanisms will be summarized in this review.

Early cerebrovascular and long-term neurological modifications ensue following juvenile mild traumatic brain injury in male mice

Clinical evidence suggests that a mild traumatic brain injury occurring at a juvenile age (jmTBI) may be sufficient to elicit pathophysiological modifications. However, clinical reports are not adequately integrated with experimental studies examining brain changes occurring post-jmTBI. We monitored the cerebrovascular modifications and assessed the long-term behavioral and electrographic changes resulting from experimental jmTBI. In vivo photoacoustic imaging demonstrated a decrease of cerebrovascular oxygen saturation levels in the impacted area hours post-jmTBI. Three days post-jmTBI oxygenation returned to pre-jmTBI levels, stabilizing at 7 and 30 days after the injury. At the functional level, cortical arterioles displayed no NMDA vasodilation response, while vasoconstriction induced by thromboxane receptor agonist was enhanced at 1 day post-jmTBI. Arterioles showed abnormal NMDA vasodilation at 3 days post-jmTBI, returning to normality at 7 days post injury. Histology showed changes in vessel diameters from 1 to 30 days post-jmTBI. Neurological evaluation indicated signs of anxiety-like behavior up to 30 days post-jmTBI. EEG recordings performed at the cortical site of impact 30 days post-jmTBI did not indicate seizures activity, although it revealed a reduction of gamma waves as compared to age matched sham. Histology showed decrease of neuronal filament staining. In conclusion, experimental jmTBI triggers an early cerebrovascular hypo‑oxygenation in vivo and faulty vascular reactivity. The exact topographical coherence and the direct casualty between early cerebrovascular changes and the observed long-term neurological modifications remain to be investigated. A potential translational value for cerebro-vascular oxygen monitoring in jmTBI is discussed.

Brain-Immune Interactions and Neuroinflammation After Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the principal cause of death and disability in children and young adults. Clinical and preclinical research efforts have been carried out to understand the acute, life-threatening pathophysiological events happening after TBI. In the past few years, however, it was recognized that TBI causes significant morbidity weeks, months, or years after the initial injury, thereby contributing substantially to the overall burden of TBI and the decrease of life expectancy in these patients. Long-lasting sequels of TBI include cognitive decline/dementia, sensory-motor dysfunction, and psychiatric disorders, and most important for patients is the need for socio-economic rehabilitation affecting their quality of life. Cerebrovascular alterations have been described during the first week after TBI for direct consequence development of neuroinflammatory process in relation to brain edema. Within the brain-immune interactions, the complement system, which is a family of blood and cell surface proteins, participates in the pathophysiology process. In fact, the complement system is part of the primary defense and clearance component of innate and adaptive immune response. In this review, the complement activation after TBI will be described in relation to the activation of the microglia and astrocytes as well as the blood-brain barrier dysfunction during the first week after the injury. Considering the neuroinflammatory activity as a causal element of neurological handicaps, some major parallel lines of complement activity in multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer pathologies with regard to cognitive impairment will be discussed for chronic TBI. A better understanding of the role of complement activation could facilitate the development of new therapeutic approaches for TBI.

Endothelins and their receptors in embryo implantation

As a critical stage of pregnancy, the implantation of blastocysts into the endometrium is a progressive, excessively regulated local tissue remodeling step involving a complex sequence of genetic and cellular interplay executed within an optimal time frame. For better understanding the causes of infertility and, more importantly, for developing powerful strategies for successful implantations and combating infertility, an increasing number of recent studies have been focused on the identification and study of newly described substances in the reproductive tree. The endothelins (ET), a 21-aminoacidic family of genes, have been reported to be responsible for the contraction of vascular and nonvascular smooth muscles, including the smooth muscles of the uterus. Therefore, this review aims to comprehensively discuss the physiological role of endothelins and signaling through their receptors, as well as their probable involvement in the implantation process.

Vascular cognitive impairment: pathophysiological mechanisms, insights into structural basis, and perspectives in specific treatments

Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) and vascular dementia are the most common forms of cognitive disorder associated with cerebrovascular disease and related to increased morbidity and mortality among the older population. Growing evidence suggests the contribution of blood-pressure variability, cardiac arrhythmia, hyperactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, endothelial dysfunction, vascular remodeling and stiffness, different angiopathies, neural tissue homeostasis, and systemic metabolic disorders to the pathophysiology of VCI. In this review, we focus on factors contributing to cerebrovascular disease, neurovascular unit alterations, and novel approaches to cognitive improvement in patients with cognitive decline. One of the important factors associated with the neuronal causes of VCI is the S100B protein, which can affect the expression of cytokines in the brain, support homeostasis, and regulate processes of differentiation, repair, and apoptosis of the nervous tissue. Since the pathological basis of VCI is complex and diverse, treatment affecting the mechanisms of cognitive disorders should be developed. The prospective role of a novel complex drug consisting of released-active antibodies to S100 and to endothelial NO synthase in VCI treatment is highlighted.

The pig as a preclinical traumatic brain injury model: current models, functional outcome measures, and translational detection strategies

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major contributor of long-term disability and a leading cause of death worldwide. A series of secondary injury cascades can contribute to cell death, tissue loss, and ultimately to the development of functional impairments. However, there are currently no effective therapeutic interventions that improve brain outcomes following TBI. As a result, a number of experimental TBI models have been developed to recapitulate TBI injury mechanisms and to test the efficacy of potential therapeutics. The pig model has recently come to the forefront as the pig brain is closer in size, structure, and composition to the human brain compared to traditional rodent models, making it an ideal large animal model to study TBI pathophysiology and functional outcomes. This review will focus on the shared characteristics between humans and pigs that make them ideal for modeling TBI and will review the three most common pig TBI models-the diffuse axonal injury, the controlled cortical impact, and the fluid percussion models. It will also review current advances in functional outcome assessment measures and other non-invasive, translational TBI detection and measurement tools like biomarker analysis and magnetic resonance imaging. The use of pigs as TBI models and the continued development and improvement of translational assessment modalities have made significant contributions to unraveling the complex cascade of TBI sequela and provide an important means to study potential clinically relevant therapeutic interventions.

Impaired Cerebral Perfusion in Multiple Sclerosis: Relevance of Endothelial Factors

Magnetic resonance imaging techniques measuring in vivo brain perfusion and integrity of the blood-brain barrier have developed rapidly in the past decade, resulting in a wide range of available methods. This review first discusses their principles, possible pitfalls, and potential for quantification and outlines clinical application in neurological disorders. Then, we focus on the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier, pointing out their contribution in regulating vascular tone by production of vasoactive substances. Finally, the role of these substances in brain hypoperfusion in multiple sclerosis is discussed.

Vascular impairment as a pathological mechanism underlying long-lasting cognitive dysfunction after pediatric traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death and disability in children. Indeed, the acute mechanical injury often evolves to a chronic brain disorder with long-term cognitive, emotional and social dysfunction even in the case of mild TBI. Contrary to the commonly held idea that children show better recovery from injuries than adults, pediatric TBI patients actually have worse outcome than adults for the same injury severity. Acute trauma to the young brain likely interferes with the fine-tuned developmental processes and may give rise to long-lasting consequences on brain's function. This review will focus on cerebrovascular dysfunction as an important early event that may lead to long-term phenotypic changes in the brain after pediatric TBI. These, in turn may be associated with accelerated brain aging and cognitive dysfunction. Finally, since no effective treatments are currently available, understanding the unique pathophysiological mechanisms of pediatric TBI is crucial for the development of new therapeutic options.

Chronic cerebrovascular dysfunction after traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) often involve vascular dysfunction that leads to long-term alterations in physiological and cognitive functions of the brain. Indeed, all the cells that form blood vessels and that are involved in maintaining their proper function can be altered by TBI. This Review focuses on the different types of cerebrovascular dysfunction that occur after TBI, including cerebral blood flow alterations, autoregulation impairments, subarachnoid hemorrhage, vasospasms, blood-brain barrier disruption, and edema formation. We also discuss the mechanisms that mediate these dysfunctions, focusing on the cellular components of cerebral blood vessels (endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, astrocytes, pericytes, perivascular nerves) and their known and potential roles in the secondary injury cascade. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Microparticles Impair Hypotensive Cerebrovasodilation and Cause Hippocampal Neuronal Cell Injury after Traumatic Brain Injury

Endothelin-1 (ET-1), tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), and extracellular signal-regulated kinases-mitogen activated protein kinase (ERK-MAPK) are mediators of impaired cerebral hemodynamics after fluid percussion brain injury (FPI) in piglets. Microparticles (MPs) are released into the circulation from a variety of cells during stress, are pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory, and may be lysed with polyethylene glycol telomere B (PEG-TB). We hypothesized that MPs released after traumatic brain injury impair hypotensive cerebrovasodilation and that PEG-TB protects the vascular response via MP lysis, and we investigated the relationship between MPs, tPA, ET-1, and ERK-MAPK in that process. FPI was induced in piglets equipped with a closed cranial window. Animals received PEG-TB or saline (vehicle) 30-minutes post-injury. Serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were sampled and pial arteries were measured pre- and post-injury. MPs were quantified by flow cytometry. CSF samples were analyzed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. MP levels, vasodilatory responses, and CSF signaling assays were similar in all animals prior to injury and treatment. After injury, MP levels were elevated in the serum of vehicle but not in PEG-TB-treated animals. Pial artery dilation in response to hypotension was impaired after injury but protected in PEG-TB-treated animals. After injury, CSF levels of tPA, ET-1, and ERK-MAPK were all elevated, but not in PEG-TB-treated animals. PEG-TB-treated animals also showed reduction in neuronal injury in CA1 and CA3 hippocampus, compared with control animals. These results show that serum MP levels are elevated after FPI and lead to impaired hypotensive cerebrovasodilation via over-expression of tPA, ET-1, and ERK-MAPK. Treatment with PEG-TB after injury reduces MP levels and protects hypotensive cerebrovasodilation and limits hippocampal neuronal cell injury.

The neurovascular unit - concept review

The cerebral hyperaemia is one of the fundamental mechanisms for the central nervous system homeostasis. Due also to this mechanism, oxygen and nutrients are maintained in satisfactory levels, through vasodilation and vasoconstriction. The brain hyperaemia, or coupling, is accomplished by a group of cells, closely related to each other; called neurovascular unit (NVU). The neurovascular unit is composed by neurones, astrocytes, endothelial cells of blood-brain barrier (BBB), myocytes, pericytes and extracellular matrix components. These cells, through their intimate anatomical and chemical relationship, detect the needs of neuronal supply and trigger necessary responses (vasodilation or vasoconstriction) for such demands. Here, we review the concepts of NVU, the coupling mechanisms and research strategies.

Vascular neural network phenotypic transformation after traumatic injury: potential role in long-term sequelae

The classical neurovascular unit (NVU), composed primarily of endothelium, astrocytes, and neurons, could be expanded to include smooth muscle and perivascular nerves present in both the up- and downstream feeding blood vessels (arteries and veins). The extended NVU, which can be defined as the vascular neural network (VNN), may represent a new physiological unit to consider for therapeutic development in stroke, traumatic brain injury, and other brain disorders (Zhang et al., Nat Rev Neurol 8(12):711-716, 2012). This review is focused on traumatic brain injury and resultant post-traumatic changes in cerebral blood flow, smooth muscle cells, matrix, blood-brain barrier structures and function, and the association of these changes with cognitive outcomes as described in clinical and experimental reports. We suggest that studies characterizing TBI outcomes should increase their focus on changes to the VNN, as this may yield meaningful therapeutic targets to resolve posttraumatic dysfunction.

Dopamine prevents impairment of autoregulation after traumatic brain injury in the newborn pig through inhibition of Up-regulation of endothelin-1 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase

OBJECTIVE

Traumatic brain injury contributes to morbidity in children and boys are disproportionately represented. Autoregulation is impaired more in male compared with female piglets after traumatic brain injury through sex-dependent up-regulation of the spasmogen endothelin-1 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), a family of three kinases: ERK, p38, and JNK). Elevation of mean arterial pressure leading to increased cerebral perfusion pressure via phenylephrine improves impairment of autoregulation after traumatic brain injury in female but not male piglets through modulation of endothelin-1 and ERK MAPK up-regulation, blocked in females, but aggravated in males. We hypothesized that pressor choice to elevate cerebral perfusion pressure is important in improving cerebral hemodynamics after traumatic brain injury and that dopamine will prevent impairment of autoregulation in both male and female piglets through blockade of endothelin-1 and ERK MAPK.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized animal study.

SETTING

University laboratory.

SUBJECTS

Newborn (1-5 days old) pigs.

INTERVENTIONS

Cerebral perfusion pressure and pial artery diameter were determined before and after lateral fluid percussion brain injury was produced in piglets equipped with a closed cranial window. Dopamine (15 µg/kg/min IV) was administered 30 mins post fluid percussion injury. Cerebrospinal fluid ERK MAPK was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Dopamine increased cerebral perfusion pressure equivalently in both sexes and prevented sex-dependent reductions in pial artery diameter after fluid percussion injury. Loss of pial artery dilation during hypotension was greater in male than in female piglets after fluid percussion injury, but dopamine prevented such impairment equivalently in both sexes post injury. endothelin-1 and ERK MAPK release was greater in male compared to female piglets after fluid percussion injury, but dopamine also blocked their up-regulation equivalently in male and female piglets after fluid percussion injury.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that dopamine is protective of autoregulation after fluid percussion injury in both sexes. These observations advocate for the consideration of development of sex based therapies for treatment of hemodynamic sequalae of pediatric traumatic brain injury.

TBI sex dependently upregulates ET-1 to impair autoregulation, which is aggravated by phenylephrine in males but is abrogated in females

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) contributes to morbidity in children, and boys are disproportionately represented. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) contributes to impaired autoregulation via oxygen (O₂⁻) after TBI in piglets, but its relative role in males compared with females has not been previously investigated. Increased cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) via phenylephrine (Phe) sex dependently improves impairment of autoregulation after TBI through modulation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) upregulation, aggravated in males, but blocked in females. Activation of adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) and Ca sensitive K channels produce vasodilation, contributing to autoregulation. We hypothesized that ET-1 upregulation is greater in males after TBI and that disturbed autoregulation will be prevented by Phe in a sex-dependent manner through modulation of ET-1, O₂⁻, and ERK. Results show that ET-1 release was greater in males after fluid percussion injury (FPI), blunted by Phe in females, but aggravated in males. K channel vasodilation was impaired more in males than in females after TBI. Phe prevented reductions in K channel vasodilation in females, but further reduced dilation in males after TBI. Co-administration of BQ-123, U0126, or PEG-SOD (ET-1, ERK antagonist, and O₂⁻ scavenger) with Phe restored dilation to K agonists and hypotension in males after TBI. ERK upregulation was blocked by BQ-123 and PEG-SOD. These data indicate that TBI upregulates ET-1 more in males than in females. Elevation of CPP with Phe sex dependently prevents impairment of cerebral autoregulation after TBI through modulation of ET-1, O₂⁻, and ERK mediated impairment of K channel vasodilation. These observations advocate for the consideration of development of sex-based therapies for the treatment of hemodynamic sequelae of pediatric TBI.