'maskBAD'--a package to detect and remove Affymetrix probes with binding affinity differences

Accelerated evolution of oligodendrocytes in the human brain

Recent discussions of human brain evolution have largely focused on increased neuron numbers and changes in their connectivity and expression. However, it is increasingly appreciated that oligodendrocytes play important roles in cognitive function and disease. Whether both cell types follow similar or distinctive evolutionary trajectories is not known. We examined the transcriptomes of neurons and oligodendrocytes in the frontal cortex of humans, chimpanzees, and rhesus macaques. We identified human-specific trajectories of gene expression in neurons and oligodendrocytes and show that both cell types exhibit human-specific up-regulation. Moreover, oligodendrocytes have undergone more pronounced accelerated gene expression evolution in the human lineage compared to neurons. We highlighted human-specific coexpression networks with specific functions. Our data suggest that oligodendrocyte human-specific networks are enriched for alternative splicing and transcriptional regulation. Oligodendrocyte networks are also enriched for variants associated with schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Such enrichments were not found in neuronal networks. These results offer a glimpse into the molecular mechanisms of oligodendrocytes during evolution and how such mechanisms are associated with neuropsychiatric disorders.

Tailoring high-density oligonucleotide arrays for transcript profiling of different Arabidopsis thaliana accessions using a sequence-based approach

Excluding polymorphic probes from GeneChip ^® transcript profiling experiments via a sequence-based approach results in improved detection of differentially expressed genes in developing seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana accessions Col-0 and C24. GeneChip^® arrays represent a powerful tool for transcript profiling experiments. The ATH1 GeneChip^® has been designed based on the sequence of the Arabidopsis thaliana reference genome Col-0, hence the features on the array exactly match the sequences of Col-0 transcripts. In contrast, transcripts of other A. thaliana accessions or related species may show nucleotide differences and/or insertions/deletions when compared to the corresponding Col-0 transcripts, therefore, comparisons of transcript abundance involving different A. thaliana accessions or related species may be compromised for a certain number of transcripts. To tackle this limitation, a sequence-based strategy was developed. Only features on the array that were identical in sequence for the specimen to be compared were considered for transcript profiling. The impact of the proposed strategy was evaluated for transcript profiles that were established for developing seeds of A. thaliana accessions Col-0 and C24.

Equalizer reduces SNP bias in Affymetrix microarrays

BACKGROUND

Gene expression microarrays measure the levels of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in a sample using probe sequences that hybridize with transcribed regions. These probe sequences are designed using a reference genome for the relevant species. However, most model organisms and all humans have genomes that deviate from their reference. These variations, which include single nucleotide polymorphisms, insertions of additional nucleotides, and nucleotide deletions, can affect the microarray's performance. Genetic experiments comparing individuals bearing different population-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms that intersect microarray probes are therefore subject to systemic bias, as the reduction in binding efficiency due to a technical artifact is confounded with genetic differences between parental strains. This problem has been recognized for some time, and earlier methods of compensation have attempted to identify probes affected by genome variants using statistical models. These methods may require replicate microarray measurement of gene expression in the relevant tissue in inbred parental samples, which are not always available in model organisms and are never available in humans.

RESULTS

By using sequence information for the genomes of organisms under investigation, potentially problematic probes can now be identified a priori. However, there is no published software tool that makes it easy to eliminate these probes from an annotation. I present equalizer, a software package that uses genome variant data to modify annotation files for the commonly used Affymetrix IVT and Gene/Exon platforms. These files can be used by any microarray normalization method for subsequent analysis. I demonstrate how use of equalizer on experiments mapping germline influence on gene expression in a genetic cross between two divergent mouse species and in human samples significantly reduces probe hybridization-induced bias, reducing false positive and false negative findings.

CONCLUSIONS

The equalizer package reduces probe hybridization bias from experiments performed on the Affymetrix microarray platform, allowing accurate assessment of germline influence on gene expression.