1
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Rodríguez-Fernández P, Botella L, Cavet JS, Domínguez J, Gutierrez MG, Suckling CJ, Scott FJ, Tabernero L. MptpB Inhibitor Improves the Action of Antibiotics against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterium avium Infections. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:170-183. [PMID: 38085851 PMCID: PMC10788870 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium infections requires multiple drugs for long time periods. Mycobacterium protein-tyrosine-phosphatase B (MptpB) is a key M. tuberculosis virulence factor that subverts host antimicrobial activity to promote intracellular survival. Inhibition of MptpB reduces the infection burden in vivo and offers new opportunities to improve current treatments. Here, we demonstrate that M. avium produces an MptpB orthologue and that the MptpB inhibitor C13 reduces the M. avium infection burden in macrophages. Combining C13 with the antibiotics rifampicin or bedaquiline showed an additive effect, reducing intracellular infection of both M. tuberculosis and M. avium by 50%, compared to monotreatment with antibiotics alone. This additive effect was not observed with pretomanid. Combining C13 with the minor groove-binding compounds S-MGB-362 and S-MGB-363 also reduced the M. tuberculosis intracellular burden. Similar additive effects of C13 and antibiotics were confirmed in vivo using Galleria mellonella infections. We demonstrate that the reduced mycobacterial burden in macrophages observed with C13 treatments is due to the increased trafficking to lysosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Rodríguez-Fernández
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health
Science Centre, M13 9PT Manchester, U.K.
| | - Laure Botella
- Host
Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, NW1 1AT London, U.K.
| | - Jennifer S. Cavet
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health
Science Centre, M13 9PT Manchester, U.K.
- Lydia
Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, University of Manchester, M13 9PT Manchester, U.K.
| | - Jose Domínguez
- Institut
d’Investigació Germans Trias i Pujol, CIBER Enfermedades
Respiratorias (CIBERES), Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona, 08916 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maximiliano G. Gutierrez
- Host
Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, NW1 1AT London, U.K.
| | - Colin J. Suckling
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, G1 1XL Glasgow, U.K.
| | - Fraser J. Scott
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, G1 1XL Glasgow, U.K.
| | - Lydia Tabernero
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health
Science Centre, M13 9PT Manchester, U.K.
- Lydia
Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, University of Manchester, M13 9PT Manchester, U.K.
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2
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Mali G, Kumar Yadav V, Priya H, Shukla M, Pandey P, Kumar A, Paranjothy M, Bhattacharyya S, Erande RD. The rapid construction and biological evaluation of densely substituted pyrrolo[1,2- a]indoles via a BF 3·OEt 2-assisted cascade approach. Org Biomol Chem 2023. [PMID: 38038241 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob01457f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Lewis-acid cascade reactions promoted by BF3·OEt2 are reported for the synthesis of highly substituted pyrrolo[1,2-a]indoles and congeners of benzofuro[2,3-b]indoles. These reactions are highly regio- and diastereoselective towards generating up to five contiguous stereogenic centers, including two vicinal quaternary centers. Furthermore, an established cascade approach and the mechanism proposed herein are well supported by quantum chemistry calculations. In addition, a self-dimerization intermediate was trapped and isolated to establish a strategy for potential access to both pyrrolo and benzo indole derivatives, leaving sufficient freedom for broadening. Furthermore, in-silico molecular docking and all atomistic molecular dynamic (MD) simulation analysis suggests that the synthesized pyrrolo[1,2-a]indole derivatives stably bind at the active site of the mycobacterial secreted tyrosine phosphatase B (MptpB) enzyme, an emerging anti-mycobacterial drug target. Deep learning-based affinity predictions and MMPBGBSA-based energy calculations of the docked poses are presented herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghanshyam Mali
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Vinay Kumar Yadav
- Department of Bioscience & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India
| | - Himani Priya
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Manjari Shukla
- Department of Bioscience & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India
| | - Peeyush Pandey
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Akhilesh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea
| | - Manikandan Paranjothy
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Sudipta Bhattacharyya
- Department of Bioscience & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India
| | - Rohan D Erande
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342037, Rajasthan, India.
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3
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Freitas-Mesquita AL, Dos-Santos ALA, Meyer-Fernandes JR. Involvement of Leishmania Phosphatases in Parasite Biology and Pathogeny. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:633146. [PMID: 33968798 PMCID: PMC8100340 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.633146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Leishmania lifecycle, the motile promastigote form is transmitted from the sand fly vector to a mammalian host during a blood meal. Inside vertebrate host macrophages, the parasites can differentiate into the amastigote form and multiply, causing leishmaniasis, one of the most significant neglected tropical diseases. Leishmania parasites face different conditions throughout their development inside sand flies. Once in the mammalian host, the parasites have to overcome the microbicide repertoire of the cells of the immune system to successfully establish the infection. In this context, the expression of protein phosphatases is of particular interest. Several members of the serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatase (STP), protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP), and histidine acid phosphatase (HAcP) families have been described in different Leishmania species. Although their physiological roles have not been fully elucidated, many studies suggest they have an involvement with parasite biology and pathogeny. Phosphatases play a role in adaptation to nutrient starvation during parasite passage through the sand fly midgut. They are also important to parasite virulence, mainly due to the modulation of host cytokine production and impairment of the microbiocidal potential of macrophages. Furthermore, recent whole-genome expression analyses have shown that different phosphatases are upregulated in metacyclic promastigotes, the infective form of the mammalian host. Leishmania phosphatases are also upregulated in drug-resistant strains, probably due to the increase in drug efflux related to the activation of ABC transporters. Throughout this review, we will describe the physiological roles that have been attributed to Leishmania endogenous phosphatases, including their involvement in the adaptation, survival, and proliferation of the parasites inside their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Leocadio Freitas-Mesquita
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - André Luiz Araújo Dos-Santos
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Meyer-Fernandes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo De Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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4
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Papadaki A, Tziouvara O, Kotopouli A, Koumarianou P, Doukas A, Rios P, Tardieux I, Köhn M, Boleti H. The Leishmania donovani LDBPK_220120.1 Gene Encodes for an Atypical Dual Specificity Lipid-Like Phosphatase Expressed in Promastigotes and Amastigotes; Substrate Specificity, Intracellular Localizations, and Putative Role(s). Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:591868. [PMID: 33842381 PMCID: PMC8027504 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.591868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The intracellular protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus are responsible for Leishmaniases, vector borne diseases with a wide range of clinical manifestations. Leishmania (L.) donovani causes visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar), the most severe of these diseases. Along their biological cycle, Leishmania parasites undergo distinct developmental transitions including metacyclogenesis and differentiation of metacyclic promastigotes (MPs) to amastigotes. Metacyclogenesis inside the phlebotomine sandfly host's midgut converts the procyclic dividing promastigotes to non-dividing infective MPs eventually injected into the skin of mammalian hosts and phagocytosed by macrophages where the MPs are converted inside modified phagolysosomes to the intracellular amastigotes. These developmental transitions involve dramatic changes in cell size and shape and reformatting of the flagellum requiring thus membrane and cytoskeleton remodeling in which phosphoinositide (PI) signaling and metabolism must play central roles. This study reports on the LDBPK_220120.1 gene, the L. donovani ortholog of LmjF.22.0250 from L. major that encodes a phosphatase from the "Atypical Lipid Phosphatases" (ALPs) enzyme family. We confirmed the expression of the LDBPK_220120.1 gene product in both L. donovani promastigotes and axenic amastigotes and showed that it behaves in vitro as a Dual Specificity P-Tyr and monophosphorylated [PI(3)P and PI(4)P] PI phosphatase and therefore named it LdTyrPIP_22 (Leishmaniad onovani Tyrosine PI Phosphatase, gene locus at chromosome 22). By immunofluorescence confocal microscopy we localized the LdTyrPIP_22 in several intracellular sites in the cell body of L. donovani promastigotes and amastigotes and in the flagellum. A temperature and pH shift from 25°C to 37°C and from pH 7 to 5.5, induced a pronounced recruitment of LdTyrPIP_22 epitopes to the flagellar pocket and a redistribution around the nucleus. These results suggest possible role(s) for this P-Tyr/PI phosphatase in the regulation of processes initiated or upregulated by this temperature/pH shift that contribute to the developmental transition from MPs to amastigotes inside the mammalian host macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Papadaki
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Olympia Tziouvara
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasia Kotopouli
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Petrina Koumarianou
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece.,Light Microscopy Unit, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Anargyros Doukas
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Pablo Rios
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany.,Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Isabelle Tardieux
- Team «Biomechanics of Host Parasite Interactions», Institut for Advanced BioSciences, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U1209 - CNRS UMR 5309, 38700 La Tronche, France
| | - Maja Köhn
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany.,Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Haralabia Boleti
- Intracellular Parasitism Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece.,Light Microscopy Unit, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
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5
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Ruddraraju KV, Aggarwal D, Niu C, Baker EA, Zhang RY, Wu L, Zhang ZY. Highly Potent and Selective N-Aryl Oxamic Acid-Based Inhibitors for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase B. J Med Chem 2020; 63:9212-9227. [PMID: 32787087 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Mtb protein tyrosine phosphatase B (mPTPB) is a virulence factor required for Mtb survival in host macrophages. Consequently, mPTPB represents an exciting target for tuberculosis treatment. Here, we identified N-phenyl oxamic acid as a highly potent and selective monoacid-based phosphotyrosine mimetic for mPTPB inhibition. SAR studies on the initial hit, compound 4 (IC50 = 257 nM), resulted in several highly potent inhibitors with IC50 values lower than 20 nM for mPTPB. Among them, compound 4t showed a Ki of 2.7 nM for mPTPB with over 4500-fold preference over 25 mammalian PTPs. Kinetic, molecular docking, and site-directed mutagenesis analyses confirmed these compounds as active site-directed reversible inhibitors of mPTPB. These inhibitors can reverse the altered host cell immune responses induced by the bacterial phosphatase. Furthermore, the inhibitors possess molecular weights <400 Da, log D7.4 < 2.5, topological polar surface area < 75, ligand efficiency > 0.43, and good aqueous solubility and metabolic stability, thus offering excellent starting points for further therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasi Viswanatharaju Ruddraraju
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Devesh Aggarwal
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Congwei Niu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Erica Anne Baker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Ruo-Yu Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Li Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
| | - Zhong-Yin Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Chemistry, Center for Cancer Research, and Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, 720 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 4790, United States
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6
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Egbe E, Levy CW, Tabernero L. Computational and structure-guided design of phosphoinositide substrate specificity into the tyrosine specific LMW-PTP enzyme. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0235133. [PMID: 32584877 PMCID: PMC7316235 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We have used a combination of computational and structure-based redesign of the low molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatase, LMW-PTP, to create new activity towards phosphoinositide substrates for which the wild-type enzyme had little or no activity. The redesigned enzymes retain catalytic activity despite residue alterations in the active site, and kinetic experiments confirmed specificity for up to four phosphoinositide substrates. Changes in the shape and overall volume of the active site where critical to facilitate access of the new substrates for catalysis. The kinetics data suggest that both the position and the combination of amino acid mutations are important for specificity towards the phosphoinositide substrates. The introduction of basic residues proved essential to establish new interactions with the multiple phosphate groups in the inositol head, thus promoting catalytically productive complexes. The crystallographic structures of the top-ranking designs confirmed the computational predictions and showed that residue substitutions do not alter the overall folding of the phosphatase or the conformation of the active site P-loop. The engineered LMW-PTP mutants with new activities can be useful reagents in investigating cell signalling pathways and offer the potential for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyong Egbe
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, England, United Kingdom
| | - Colin W Levy
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, England, United Kingdom
| | - Lydia Tabernero
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, England, United Kingdom
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7
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LmxM.22.0250-Encoded Dual Specificity Protein/Lipid Phosphatase Impairs Leishmania mexicana Virulence In Vitro. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8040241. [PMID: 31744234 PMCID: PMC6969907 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation is an important regulatory mechanism that controls many key physiological processes. Numerous pathogens successfully use kinases and phosphatases to internalize, replicate, and survive, modifying the host′s phosphorylation profile or signal transduction pathways. Multiple phosphatases and kinases from diverse bacterial pathogens have been implicated in human infections before. In this work, we have identified and characterized the dual specificity protein/lipid phosphatase LmDUSP1 as a novel virulence factor governing Leishmania mexicana infection. The LmDUSP1-encoding gene (LmxM.22.0250 in L. mexicana) has been acquired from bacteria via horizontal gene transfer. Importantly, its orthologues have been associated with virulence in several bacterial species, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Listeria monocytogenes. Leishmania mexicana with ablated LmxM.22.0250 demonstrated severely attenuated virulence in the experimental infection of primary mouse macrophages, suggesting that this gene facilitates Leishmania pathogenicity in vertebrates. Despite significant upregulation of LmxM.22.0250 expression in metacyclic promastigotes, its ablation did not affect the ability of mutant cells to differentiate into virulent stages in insects. It remains to be further investigated which specific biochemical pathways involve LmDUSP1 and how this facilitates the parasite′s survival in the host. One of the interesting possibilities is that LmDUSP1 may target host′s substrate(s), thereby affecting its signal transduction pathways.
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8
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Fernandez M, Paulucci NS, Peppino Margutti M, Biasutti AM, Racagni GE, Villasuso AL, Agostini E, González PS. Membrane Rigidity and Phosphatidic Acid (PtdOH) Signal: Two Important Events in Acinetobacter guillouiae SFC 500-1A Exposed to Chromium(VI) and Phenol. Lipids 2019; 54:557-570. [PMID: 31475368 DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The remodeling of membrane lipids is a mechanism that allows microorganisms to survive in unfavorable environments such as industrial effluents, which often contain inorganic and organic pollutants, like chromium and phenol. In the present work, we evaluated the effect of Cr(VI) and phenol on the membrane of Acinetobacter guillouiae SFC 500-1A, a bacterial strain isolated from tannery sediments where such pollutants can be found. The presence of lipid kinases and phospholipases and the changes in their activities under exposure to these pollutants were determined. Cr(VI) and Cr(VI) + phenol caused the membrane to become more rigid for up to 16 h after exposure. This could be due to an increase in cardiolipin (Ptd2 Gro) and a decrease in phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), which are indicative of more order and rigidity in the membrane. Increased phospholipase A activity (PLA, EC 3.1.1.4) could be responsible for the decrease in PtdEtn levels. Moreover, our results indicate that Cr(VI) and Cr(VI) + phenol trigger the phosphatidic acid (PtdOH) signal. The finding of significantly increased phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PtdIns-4-P) levels means this is likely achieved via PtdIns-PLC/DGK. This report provides the first evidence that A. guillouiae SFC 500-1A is able to sense Cr(VI) and phenol, transduce this signal through changes in the physical state of the membrane, and trigger lipid-signaling events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilina Fernandez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Natalia S Paulucci
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Micaela Peppino Margutti
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Alicia M Biasutti
- Departamento de Química-FCEFQyN, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Graciela E Racagni
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ana L Villasuso
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Elizabeth Agostini
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Paola S González
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
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9
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Characteristics of the First Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase with Phytase Activity from a Soil Metagenome. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10020101. [PMID: 30700057 PMCID: PMC6409689 DOI: 10.3390/genes10020101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) fulfil multiple key regulatory functions. Within the group of PTPs, the atypical lipid phosphatases (ALPs) are known for their role as virulence factors associated with human pathogens. Another group of PTPs, which is capable of using inositol-hexakisphosphate (InsP6) as substrate, are known as phytases. Phytases play major roles in the environmental phosphorus cycle, biotechnology, and pathogenesis. So far, all functionally characterized PTPs, including ALPs and PTP-phytases, have been derived exclusively from isolated microorganisms. In this study, screening of a soil-derived metagenomic library resulted in identification of a gene (pho16B), encoding a PTP, which shares structural characteristics with the ALPs. In addition, the characterization of the gene product (Pho16B) revealed the capability of the protein to use InsP6 as substrate, and the potential of soil as a source of phytases with so far unknown characteristics. Thus, Pho16B represents the first functional environmentally derived PTP-phytase. The enzyme has a molecular mass of 38 kDa. The enzyme is promiscuous, showing highest activity and affinity toward naphthyl phosphate (Km 0.966 mM). Pho16B contains the HCXXGKDR[TA]G submotif of PTP-ALPs, and it is structurally related to PtpB of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This study demonstrates the presence and functionality of an environmental gene codifying a PTP-phytase homologous to enzymes closely associated to bacterial pathogenicity.
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10
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Morrell TE, Rafalska-Metcalf IU, Yang H, Chu JW. Compound Molecular Logic in Accessing the Active Site of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase B. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:14747-14752. [PMID: 30301350 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b08070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase B (PtpB) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) extends the bacteria's survival in hosts and hence is a potential target for Mtb-specific drugs. To study how Mtb-specific sequence insertions in PtpB may regulate access to its active site through large-amplitude conformational changes, we performed free-energy calculations using an all-atom explicit solvent model. Corroborated by biochemical assays, the results show that PtpB's active site is controlled via an "either/or" compound conformational gating mechanism, an unexpected discovery that Mtb has evolved to bestow a single enzyme with such intricate logical operations. In addition to providing unprecedented insights for its active-site surroundings, the findings also suggest new ways of inactivating PtpB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Morrell
- Department of Chemistry , Princeton University , Princeton , New Jersey 08544 , United States
| | | | - Haw Yang
- Department of Chemistry , Princeton University , Princeton , New Jersey 08544 , United States
| | - Jhih-Wei Chu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, Department of Biological Science and Technology, and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Bioengineering , National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu , Taiwan 30068 , ROC
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11
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Vickers C, Silva APG, Chakraborty A, Fernandez P, Kurepina N, Saville C, Naranjo Y, Pons M, Schnettger LS, Gutierrez MG, Park S, Kreiswith BN, Perlin DS, Thomas EJ, Cavet JS, Tabernero L. Structure-Based Design of MptpB Inhibitors That Reduce Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Survival and Infection Burden in Vivo. J Med Chem 2018; 61:8337-8352. [PMID: 30153005 PMCID: PMC6459586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis protein-tyrosine-phosphatase B (MptpB) is a secreted virulence factor that subverts antimicrobial activity in the host. We report here the structure-based design of selective MptpB inhibitors that reduce survival of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis strains in macrophages and enhance killing efficacy by first-line antibiotics. Monotherapy with an orally bioavailable MptpB inhibitor reduces infection burden in acute and chronic guinea pig models and improves the overall pathology. Our findings provide a new paradigm for tuberculosis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare
F. Vickers
- The
School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Ana P. G. Silva
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Ajanta Chakraborty
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Paulina Fernandez
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Natalia Kurepina
- Public
Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical
School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Charis Saville
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Yandi Naranjo
- Departament
de Química Inorgànica i Orgànica, Universitat de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac, 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miquel Pons
- Departament
de Química Inorgànica i Orgànica, Universitat de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac, 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura S. Schnettger
- Host−Pathogen
Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, NW1 1AT London, United Kingdom
| | - Maximiliano G. Gutierrez
- Host−Pathogen
Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, NW1 1AT London, United Kingdom
| | - Steven Park
- Public
Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical
School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Barry N. Kreiswith
- Public
Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical
School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - David S. Perlin
- Public
Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical
School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Eric J. Thomas
- The
School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer S. Cavet
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Lydia Tabernero
- School
of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Manchester
Academic Health Science Centre, University
of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
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12
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Sharma R, Kumar P, Kaushal V, Das R, Kumar Navani N. A novel protein tyrosine phosphatase like phytase from Lactobacillus fermentum NKN51: Cloning, characterization and application in mineral release for food technology applications. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 249:1000-1008. [PMID: 29145111 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.10.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A novel protein tyrosine phosphatase like phytase (PTPLP), designated as PhyLf from probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus fermentum NKN51 was identified, cloned, expressed and characterized. The recombinant PhyLf showed specific activity of 174.5 U/mg. PhyLf exhibited strict specificity towards phytate and optimum temperature at 60 °C, pH 5.0 and ionic strength of 100 mM. Km and Kcat of PhyLf for phytate were 0.773 mM and 84.31 s-1, respectively. PhyLf exhibited high resistance against oxidative inactivation. PhyLf shares no homology, sans the active site with reported PTLPs, warranting classification as a new subclass. Dephytinization of durum wheat and finger millet under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions using PhyLf enhanced the bioaccessibility of mineral ions. Probiotic origin, phytate specificity, resistance to oxidative environment and gastric milieu coupled with ability to release micronutrients are unique properties of PhyLf which present a strong case for its use in ameliorating nutritional value of cereals and animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rekha Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India
| | - Piyush Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India
| | - Vandana Kaushal
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India
| | - Rahul Das
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 741246, India
| | - Naveen Kumar Navani
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India.
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13
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Soulat D, Bogdan C. Function of Macrophage and Parasite Phosphatases in Leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1838. [PMID: 29312331 PMCID: PMC5743797 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The kinetoplastid protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Leishmania are the causative agents of different clinical forms of leishmaniasis, a vector-borne infectious disease with worldwide prevalence. The protective host immune response against Leishmania parasites relies on myeloid cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages in which upon stimulation by cytokines (e.g., interferon-γ) a complex network of signaling pathways is switched on leading to strong antimicrobial activities directed against the intracellular parasite stage. The regulation of these pathways classically depends on post-translational modifications of proteins, with phosphorylation events playing a cardinal role. Leishmania parasites deactivate their phagocytic host cells by inducing specific mammalian phosphatases that are capable to impede signaling. On the other hand, there is now also evidence that Leishmania spp. themselves express phosphatases that might target host cell molecules and thereby facilitate the intracellular survival of the parasite. This review will present an overview on the modulation of host phosphatases by Leishmania parasites as well as on the known families of Leishmania phosphatases and their possible function as virulence factors. A more detailed understanding of the role of phosphatases in Leishmania–host cell interactions might open new avenues for the treatment of non-healing, progressive forms of leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier Soulat
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Medical Immunology Campus Erlangen, Interdisciplinary Center of the FAU, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christian Bogdan
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Medical Immunology Campus Erlangen, Interdisciplinary Center of the FAU, Erlangen, Germany
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14
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Anwar T, Gourinath S. Analysis of the Protein phosphotome of Entamoeba histolytica reveals an intricate phosphorylation network. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78714. [PMID: 24236039 PMCID: PMC3827238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphorylation is the most common mechanism for the propagation of intracellular signals. Protein phosphatases and protein kinases play a dynamic antagonistic role in protein phosphorylation. Protein phosphatases make up a significant fraction of eukaryotic proteome. In this article, we report the identification and analysis of protein phosphatases in the intracellular parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Based on an in silico analysis, we classified 250 non-redundant protein phosphatases in E. histolytica. The phosphotome of E. histolytica is 3.1% of its proteome and 1.3 times of the human phosphotome. In this extensive study, we identified 42 new putative phosphatases (39 hypothetical proteins and 3 pseudophosphatases). The presence of pseudophosphatases may have an important role in virulence of E. histolytica. A comprehensive phosphotome analysis of E. histolytica shows spectacular low similarity to human phosphatases, making them potent candidates for drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamanna Anwar
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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15
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Abstract
Phosphoinositides (PIs) make up only a small fraction of cellular phospholipids, yet they control almost all aspects of a cell's life and death. These lipids gained tremendous research interest as plasma membrane signaling molecules when discovered in the 1970s and 1980s. Research in the last 15 years has added a wide range of biological processes regulated by PIs, turning these lipids into one of the most universal signaling entities in eukaryotic cells. PIs control organelle biology by regulating vesicular trafficking, but they also modulate lipid distribution and metabolism via their close relationship with lipid transfer proteins. PIs regulate ion channels, pumps, and transporters and control both endocytic and exocytic processes. The nuclear phosphoinositides have grown from being an epiphenomenon to a research area of its own. As expected from such pleiotropic regulators, derangements of phosphoinositide metabolism are responsible for a number of human diseases ranging from rare genetic disorders to the most common ones such as cancer, obesity, and diabetes. Moreover, it is increasingly evident that a number of infectious agents hijack the PI regulatory systems of host cells for their intracellular movements, replication, and assembly. As a result, PI converting enzymes began to be noticed by pharmaceutical companies as potential therapeutic targets. This review is an attempt to give an overview of this enormous research field focusing on major developments in diverse areas of basic science linked to cellular physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamas Balla
- Section on Molecular Signal Transduction, Program for Developmental Neuroscience, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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16
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Lipid synthesis in protozoan parasites: a comparison between kinetoplastids and apicomplexans. Prog Lipid Res 2013; 52:488-512. [PMID: 23827884 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Revised: 06/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lipid metabolism is of crucial importance for pathogens. Lipids serve as cellular building blocks, signalling molecules, energy stores, posttranslational modifiers, and pathogenesis factors. Parasites rely on a complex system of uptake and synthesis mechanisms to satisfy their lipid needs. The parameters of this system change dramatically as the parasite transits through the various stages of its life cycle. Here we discuss the tremendous recent advances that have been made in the understanding of the synthesis and uptake pathways for fatty acids and phospholipids in apicomplexan and kinetoplastid parasites, including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Lipid synthesis differs in significant ways between parasites from both phyla and the human host. Parasites have acquired novel pathways through endosymbiosis, as in the case of the apicoplast, have dramatically reshaped substrate and product profiles, and have evolved specialized lipids to interact with or manipulate the host. These differences potentially provide opportunities for drug development. We outline the lipid pathways for key species in detail as they progress through the developmental cycle and highlight those that are of particular importance to the biology of the pathogens and/or are the most promising targets for parasite-specific treatment.
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17
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Böhmer F, Szedlacsek S, Tabernero L, Ostman A, den Hertog J. Protein tyrosine phosphatase structure-function relationships in regulation and pathogenesis. FEBS J 2013; 280:413-31. [PMID: 22682070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08655.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation on tyrosine residues is tightly controlled by protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) at multiple levels: spatio-temporal expression, subcellular localization and post-translational modification. Structural and functional analysis of the PTP domains has provided insight into catalysis and regulatory mechanisms that control the enzymatic activity. Understanding the molecular basis of PTP regulation is of fundamental importance to dissect the pleiotropic effect of these enzymes in both health and disease. Here, we review recent insights into the regulation of receptor-like PTPs by extracellular ligands and into regulation by reversible oxidation that impairs catalysis directly. The physiological roles of PTPs are essential in homeostasis in eukaryotic cells and pertubation of their functional attributes causes different disease states. As an example, we discuss recent findings indicating how inappropriate oxidation of PTPs in cancer cells may contribute to cell transformation. On the other hand, PTPs from many pathogens are key virulence factors and manipulate signalling pathways in the host cells to promote invasion and survival of the microorganisms. This research area has received relatively little attention but has advanced remarkably. We review the structural features of pathogenic PTPs, their similarities and differences with eukaryotic PTPs, and the possible exploitation of this knowledge for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Böhmer
- Center for Molecular Biomedicine, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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18
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Payrastre B, Gaits-Iacovoni F, Sansonetti P, Tronchère H. Phosphoinositides and cellular pathogens. Subcell Biochem 2012; 59:363-388. [PMID: 22374097 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-3015-1_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Phosphoinositides are considered as highly dynamic players in the spatiotemporal organization of key signaling pathways, actin cytoskeleton rearrangements, establishment of cell polarity and intracellular vesicle trafficking. Their metabolism is accurately controlled and mutations in several phosphoinositide metabolizing enzymes take part in the development of human pathologies. Interestingly, evidence is accumulating that modulation of the phosphoinositide metabolism is critical for pathogenicity and virulence of many human pathogens. Given the importance of phosphoinositides, which link membrane and cytoskeleton dynamics to cell responses, it is not surprising that many invasive pathogens hijack their metabolism as part of their strategies to establish infection. In fact, according to their lifestyle, cellular pathogens use the phosphoinositide metabolism in order to trigger their uptake in nonphagocytic cells and/or modulate the maturation of the pathogen-containing vacuole to establish their replicative niche or escape in the cytosol and promote host cell survival. The last two decades have been marked by the discovery of different tactics used by cellular pathogens to modulate the phosphoinositide metabolism as part of their strategies to survive, proliferate and disseminate in a hostile environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Payrastre
- Inserm, U1048, Université Toulouse 3, I2MC, Hôpital de Toulouse, BP 84225 Avenue Jean Poulhès, 31432, Toulouse Cedex 04, France,
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19
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Nir-Paz R, Eugster MR, Zeiman E, Loessner MJ, Calendar R. Listeria monocytogenes tyrosine phosphatases affect wall teichoic acid composition and phage resistance. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2011; 326:151-60. [PMID: 22092439 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02445.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Revised: 10/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tyrosine phosphatase (PTP)-like proteins exist in many bacteria and are segregated into two major groups: low molecular weight and conventional. The latter group also has activity as phosphoinositide phosphatases. These two kinds of PTP are suggested to be involved in many aspects of bacterial physiology including stress response, DNA binding proteins, virulence, and capsule/cell wall production. By annotation, Listeria monocytogenes possesses two potential low molecular weight and two conventional PTPs. Using L. monocytogenes wild-type (WT) strain 10403S, we have created an in-frame deletion mutant lacking all four PTPs, as well as four additional complemented strains harboring each of the PTPs. No major physiological differences were observed between the WT and the mutant lacking all four PTPs. However, the deletion mutant strain was resistant to Listeria phages A511 and P35 and sensitive to other Listeria phages. This was attributed to reduced attachment to the cell wall. The mutant lacking all PTPs was found to lack N-acetylglucosamine in its wall teichoic acid. Phage sensitivity and attachment was rescued in a complemented strain harboring a low molecular weight PTP (LMRG1707).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Nir-Paz
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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20
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Romá-Mateo C, Sacristán-Reviriego A, Beresford NJ, Caparrós-Martín JA, Culiáñez-Macià FA, Martín H, Molina M, Tabernero L, Pulido R. Phylogenetic and genetic linkage between novel atypical dual-specificity phosphatases from non-metazoan organisms. Mol Genet Genomics 2011; 285:341-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s00438-011-0611-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 02/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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21
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Abstract
As a way of enhancing infections, bacterial pathogens often alter host cell signaling pathways. Here, we describe recent work that highlights a new phosphatase from an intestinal and wound-invading pathogen that manipulates host cell phosphoinositide circuits. Despite the active-site homology between bacterial inositol phosphatases and mammalian phosphatases, sequence differences between them suggest that the development of specific inhibitors may be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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