The assessment of recalled parental rearing behavior and its relationship to life satisfaction and interpersonal problems: a general population study

What makes a violent mind? The interplay of parental rearing, dark triad personality traits and propensity for violence in a sample of German adolescents

Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy are socially aversive personality traits that are strongly linked to the propensity of violence. A central determinate of aggression and violence is parental rearing. Interestingly, while the origin of the development of Dark Triad is not yet entirely understood, next to genetic and environmental factors, literature points towards an influence of parenting styles to the development of dark traits. Therefore, in a sample of 1366 9th grade students (mean age 14.89,), we assessed the interplay between parental rearing, dark triad traits, observation of violence among peers and their propensity for violence. The sample has a good representativeness on school types. Results reveal a positive association between the experience of parental rejection by both parents and punishment as well as parental control and overprotection and Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy. Parental emotional warmth was associated negatively with Machiavellianism and psychopathy while no significant association with narcissism was seen. In a path model, parental rearing, dark triad traits and observation of violence among peers significantly contributed to the propensity of violence. However, differences between the experienced parenting behaviour of mothers and fathers should be noted. Both rejection and overly harsh punishments by fathers and emotional warmth by mothers have no significant influence on the dark triad. It is interesting that the effects regarding maternal parenting behaviour are stronger overall than the effects regarding paternal parenting behaviour. These results underline the importance of parental rearing on the development of Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy and suggest a significant role of parental rearing and the dark triad traits on propensity for violence in adolescents. Parenting trainings and family interventions may be a promising starting point to prevent antisocial behavior linked to the dark triad and to prevent violent behavior in future generations.

Quantile regression analysis of the association between parental rearing and interpersonal sensitivity in Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

Parental rearing is well documented as an important influencing factor of interpersonal sensitivity (IS). However, little research has focused on the extent by which various aspects of parental rearing in fluence IS. This study aimed to analyze the effects of parental rearing on IS, using quantile regression. We analyzed the extent of the influence of parental rearing on IS by quantile regression to provide definitive evidence on the family education of adolescents with IS problems.

METHODS

The multiple cross-sectional studies were conducted among 3345 adolescents from Harbin, China, in 1999, 2006, 2009 and 2016. Furthermore, a multistage sampling method (stratified random cluster) was used to select participants. IS was assessed using a subscale of the Symptom Checklist-90-Revision. Perceived parental rearing was assessed using the Egna Minnen av. Barndoms Uppfostran. The ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression was used to determine the average effect of parental rearing on IS. The quantile regression was conducted to examine the established associations and to further explain the association.

RESULTS

Paternal emotional warmth was found to be associated with IS across the quantile, especially after the 0.6 quantiles; however, this association was not found for maternal emotional warmth. Paternal punishment was associated with IS at the 0.22-0.27 and 0.60 quantile; however, maternal punishment had no significant effect on IS. QR method found that paternal overinvolvement was associated with IS at the 0.48-0.65 quantiles, but paternal overprotection was associated with IS across the quantile; however, maternal overinvolvement and overprotection was positively correlated with IS at the 0.07-0.95 quantiles. The correlation between paternal rejection and IS was found at the 0.40-0.75 and > 0.90 quantiles; maternal rejection was associated with IS within the 0.05-0.92 quantiles.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental rearing practices predict different magnitudes of IS at varying levels. This study provides suggestions for parents to assess purposefully and systematically, intervene, and ameliorate adolescent IS problems. We also highlight the role of paternal rearing in children's IS problems, providing new ideas for family education.

Recalled parental rearing behavior in adult women and men with depressive and anxiety symptoms: Findings from a community study

Objectives: Addressing the lack of population-based data, the purpose of this representative study was to assess sex- and age-specific associations of maternal and paternal rearing behavior with depressiveness and anxiety controlling for sociodemographic and somatic variables. Methods: 8,175 subjects participating in a population-based study completed standardized questionnaires measuring Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior and distress. Results: Women recalled their fathers as more controlling and warmer, and their mothers as more rejecting than men. Comparisons between age groups (≤ 60 vs. > 60 years) revealed that younger participants recalled more parental control and emotional warmth. In addition to sociodemographic and somatic risk factors, paternal rejection and maternal control were associated with depressiveness and anxiety both for women and men (OR 1.58-1.96; OR 1.37-1.66). Maternal warmth was negatively related to distress (OR 0.66-0.69). Conclusions: Findings suggested sex- and age-specific differences in recalled maternal and paternal rearing behavior. The current results highlighted the important role of recalled parental rearing behavior besides sociodemographic factors and somatic diseases for the occurrence of depression and anxiety symptoms across the age groups.

What's past is prologue: Recalled parenting styles are associated with childhood cancer survivors' mental health outcomes more than 25 years after diagnosis

BACKGROUND

With the increased survival rates of childhood cancer, long-term survivors' well-being over the life span has come into focus. A better understanding of the determinants of childhood cancer survivors' (CCS) mental health outcomes contributes to the identification of vulnerable individuals as well as to the development of evidence-based prevention and intervention efforts. It has been noted that psychosocial factors such as parental rearing behavior shape individual differences in mental health. There is also evidence that parents show altered parenting behavior in the face of childhood cancer, e. g. that they express more emotional support, but also more worries. However, little is known about the relevance of different parenting styles for CCS' mental health decades after diagnosis and treatment.

METHODS

We examined the associations of recalled parenting styles and disease-related factors with lifetime diagnoses of depression and anxiety disorders in a German, registry-based sample of adult CCS (N = 948, 44.50% women) with survival times >25 years. We conducted logistic regression analyses of lifetime diagnoses of depression and anxiety disorders, respectively, on dimensions of recalled parental rearing behavior (measured with a validated German short version of the EMBU) controlling for relevant adjustment variables such as the presence of physical illnesses.

RESULTS

Recalled parenting styles of both parents had statistically relevant associations with CCS' lifetime depression and anxiety diagnoses. Maternal emotional warmth was related to fewer lifetime diagnoses of depression and fewer lifetime diagnoses of anxiety. Memories of paternal control and overprotection were positively associated with lifetime diagnoses of anxiety.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that mental representations of one's caregivers are associated with psychological long-term outcomes. Thus, medical professionals should involve the parents and support them in accompanying their child through the difficult times of treatment and survivorship. Interventions aimed at fostering survivors' quality of life should consider the sustained relevance of early relationships.

Inherited anxiety-related parent-infant dyads alter LHPA activity

The pathogenesis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is incompletely understood. We hypothesize that disruptions in mother-child relations may be a key contributor to development of PTSD. A normal and healthy separation-individuation process requires adaptations of self- and interactive contingency in both the mother and her child, especially in early childhood development. Anxious mothers are prone to overprotection, which may hinder the individuation process in their children. We examined long-term stress hormones and other stress markers in subjects three generations removed from the Holocaust, to assess the long-term consequences of inherited behavioral and physiological responses to prior stress and trauma. Jewish subjects who recalled overprotective parental behavior had higher hairsteroid-concentrations and dampened limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (LHPA) axis reactivity compared to German and Russian-German subjects with overprotective parents. We suggest that altered LHPA axis activity in maternally overprotected Jewish subjects may indicate a transmitted pathomechanism of "frustrated individuation" resulting from cross-generational anti-Semitic experiences. Thus measurements of hairsteroid-concentrations and parenting practices may have clinical value for diagnosis of PTSD. We propose that this apparent inherited adaptivity of LHPA axis activity could promote higher individual stress resistance, albeit with risk of an allostatic overload.

Health condition and familial factors associated with health-related quality of life in adolescents with congenital heart disease: a cross sectional study

Background

The focus of clinical care after the repair of congenital heart disease has shifted from saving life of the patient to the patient’s quality of life. The purpose of this study was to examine the health condition and familial factors associated with the health related quality of life of adolescents with congenital heart disease.

Methods

Ninety-eight adolescents aged 13–19 years were collected from a congenital heart clinic from July 22 to August 23, 2013. Perceptions of parental rearing behaviors, health related quality of life of adolescent with congenital heart disease, and general characteristics were measured. We used multiple linear regression analysis to explore factors that are associated with the health related quality of life of adolescents with congenital heart disease.

Results

New York heart association class (Adj R² = .186, p = .000), presence of siblings (Adj R² = .240, p = .010), and mother’s emotional warmth (Adj R² = .265, p = .043) were significantly associated with the health related quality of life of adolescents with congenital heart disease.

Conclusions

Emotionally warm parental rearing behaviors and the presence of siblings were important familial factors that were positively associated with HRQOL in adolescents with CHD. Therefore, it is important for healthcare providers to develop a greater sensitivity to, and awareness of, the familial influences that may be impacting a subject’s HRQOL, as well as the exigencies of the CHD, itself.

The Relationship between Parental Rearing Behavior, Resilience, and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents with Congenital Heart Disease

Objectives

Parental rearing behavior is one factor that influences the strength of resilience. In turn, resilience influences depression. However, it is unclear whether resilience has a mediating effect on the relationship between parental rearing and depression in adolescents with congenital heart disease (CHD). Therefore, the associations between parental rearing behavior and resilience and between rearing behavior and symptoms of depression were investigated with respect to age, gender and disease severity.

Subjects and methods

Patients completed a parental rearing behavior questionnaire, a resilience scale and the Children’s Depression Inventory during a routine clinic visit. Structural equation modeling with maximum likelihood estimation was used to analyze the data.

Results

The median age of the 180 patients included in the study was 17.8 years, and 64% were male. Lower resilience was found to be associated with overprotection, punishment, rejection, and control. There was a strong relationship between resilience and symptoms of depression. Resilience varied according to gender, age group, and disease severity.

Conclusion

Parental rearing behaviors such as emotional warmth, rejection, punishment, control, and overprotection have a significant influence on adolescent’s resilience. When developing intervention programs to increase resilience and reduce depression in adolescents with CHD, parenting attitudes, gender, age, and CHD severity should be considered.

The relationship between perceived parental rearing behaviors and school adjustment of adolescent cancer survivors in Korea: A cross-sectional study

Return and adjustment to school in adolescents who have survived cancer have become of increasing interest as the numbers of childhood cancers survivors have grown due to advances in treatments. Perceived parental rearing behavior is an important factor related to school adjustment. This study examined the relationships between maternal and parental rearing practices, general characteristics, and school adjustment in adolescent cancer survivors in Korea. We conducted a descriptive, exploratory study of 84 adolescents with cancer using the Korean version of the Fragebogen zum erinnerten elterlichen Erziehungsverhalten: FEE (Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior) and a school adjustment measurement. Descriptive, Pearson correlational, and multiple regression analyses were used to investigate the data. In bivariate analysis, age (r = -0.358, P < .05), mother's emotional warmth (r = 0.549, P < .01), and father's emotional warmth (r = 0.391, P < .05) were significantly associated with school adjustment. However, the results of multiple regression analysis showed that only mother's emotional warmth (β = .720, P < .05) was significantly associated with school adjustment. Adolescent cancer survivors who reported higher mother's emotional warmth exhibited better school adjustment. This finding indicates that it is important to help parents of adolescent cancer survivors enhance their parental rearing behaviors, such as emotional warmth, to help adolescents adjust to school.

Persistent LHPA Activation in German Individuals Raised in an Overprotective Parental Behavior

Parental upbringing may affect their offspring’s mental state across the entire lifespan. Overprotective parental child-rearing style may increase the disease burden in the offspring. Furthermore, this child-rearing style may also play a pathogenetic role by transmitting trauma- and stressor-related disorders (TSRD) across generations. Studies with animals have demonstrated that the mother’s immediate and expansive protection of the newborn decreases the limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (LHPA) axis activity in the offspring. However, few studies have investigated how stress impact humans raised in an overprotective manner. In a cross-sectional study with 40 healthy students recalling their overprotective upbringing, we show an increase in the dehydroepiandrostendione (DHEA) concentration and a reduction in the cortisol/DHEA-ratio in hair. Additionally, this child rearing style was associated with heightened indications of mental burden, depressiveness, and sense of coherence. Our results provide insight into the roots and consequences of psychological trauma across several generations. Further investigations focusing particularly on multigenerational transmission in extremely burdened families will augment our results.

Early parenting styles and sexual offending behavior: A comparative study

Sexual offenders, in general, report problematic rearing practices from their parents, lacking however more empirical research on this topic regarding particular subtypes of offenders. The current study examined the relationship between early parenting styles and different types of sexual offending. A total of 113 sexual offenders (rapists, pedophilic and nonpedophilic child molesters), and 51 nonsexual offenders completed the EMBU (My Memories of Upbringing), the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Socially Desirable Response Set Measure. Results showed that rapists were less likely to remember their fathers as being emotionally warm compared with nonsexual offenders and pedophilic child molesters. In addition, compared with rapists, pedophilic offenders perceived their mothers as having been less emotionally warm to them. Overall, results showed that certain developmental experiences with parents were able to distinguish between subtypes of offenders supporting an association between distal interpersonal factors and sexual offending. These findings may have important implications for early intervention and prevention of sexual crimes. Further research using larger samples of pedophilic child molesters is recommended.

Estrutura dimensional da versão brasileira do instrumento s-EMBU para aferição de práticas educativas parentais em adolescentes

Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a estrutura dimensional do instrumento s-EMBU, utilizado para a mensuração de práticas educativas parentais, quando aplicado a adolescentes. A amostra contou com 487 estudantes da Região Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, no ano de 2013. A média de idade foi 14 anos, sendo 47% meninas. A estrutura dimensional original foi avaliada por análise fatorial do tipo confirmatória (AFC). Também foram implementados modelos de equação estrutural exploratórios (MEEE). O ajuste da AFC foi insatisfatório. À luz dos MEEE, a solução mais parcimoniosa concerniu o modelo de três fatores (RMSEA = 0,03; CFI = 0,97; e TLI = 0,96), porém vários itens da dimensão superproteção apresentaram cargas fatoriais maiores na dimensão Rejeição. Os itens das dimensões rejeição e calor emocional se mostraram mais apropriados. No Brasil, o s-EMBU capta parcialmente as dimensões propostas para aferição das práticas educativas parentais em adolescentes. A dimensão calor emocional teve sua estrutura dimensional confirmada, no entanto, a de rejeição e especialmente a de superproteção requerem aprimoramento.

The Effect of Perceived Parental Rearing Behaviors on Health-Related Quality of Life in Adolescents with Leukemia

As the prognosis of childhood leukemia has dramatically improved, clinical interest has been growing in health-related quality of life in adolescents with leukemia. An important factor in adolescent quality of life is their perception of parental rearing behavior. The aim of this study was to explore how perceived parental rearing behaviors related to the quality of life of adolescents with leukemia. A descriptive, exploratory study was conducted among 106 adolescents with leukemia using the Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior and the Minneapolis-Manchester Quality of Life scales. Data were examined using descriptive, correlation, and path analyses. The coefficients of total effect of paternal and maternal emotional warmth on the quality of life of adolescents were 0.36 and 0.45, respectively. We found that paternal rejection/punishment behavior was significantly correlated with maternal rejection/punishment behavior (P < .00); paternal and maternal control/overprotection behavior were also significantly correlated with each other (P < .00). We found that perceived parental warmth has a moderate effect on the quality of life of adolescents, that quality of life was related to both paternal and maternal rearing behaviors, and that the mother's and father's rearing behaviors were correlated with each other. To improve the quality of life of adolescents with leukemia, the patient's care plan should aim to enhance positive parental rearing behaviors in both parents.

The relationship of parental rearing behavior and resilience as well as psychological symptoms in a representative sample

Background

Recalled parental rearing behavior is one of the factors influencing the strength of resilience. However, it is unclear whether resilience is a relatively stable personality trait or has a relational character whose protective strength changes over the course of life. Therefore, the association between recalled parental rearing and resilience as well as symptoms of anxiety and depression was investigated in respect to age and gender.

Methods

N = 4,782 healthy subjects aged 14-92 (M = 48.1 years) were selected by the random-route sampling method. In this sample, an ultra-short form of the Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior Questionnaire, the German short version of the resilience scale, and two screening instruments for depression and anxiety (PHQ-2, GAD-2) were filled out. Structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data estimated with the maximum likelihood method approach.

Results

The data revealed that rejection and punishment were clearly associated with lower resilience. Moreover, resilience had a strong connection to the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Resilience had the same quality of association in both men and women with respect to anxiety and depression. Furthermore, the effect of resilience did not vary across several age groups even though challenges may differ over a lifetime.

Conclusion

Recalled parental rearing behavior such as rejection and punishment as well as control and overprotection exert a significant association on the strength of resilience. Resilience has an effect independent of gender and does not affect people of different age groups differently.

An ultra-short screening version of the Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior questionnaire (FEE-US) and its factor structure in a representative German sample

BACKGROUND

The Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior questionnaire (FEE, [1,2]) assesses perceived parental rearing behavior separately for each parent. An ultra-short screening version (FEE-US) with the same three scales each for the mother and the father is reported and factor-analytically validated.

METHODS

N = 4,640 subjects aged 14 to 92 (M = 48.4 years) were selected by the random-route sampling method. The ultra-short questionnaire version was derived from the long version through item and factor analyses. In a confirmatory factor analysis framework, the hypothesized three-factorial structure was fitted to the empirical data and tested for measurement invariance, differential item functioning, item discriminability, and convergent and discriminant factorial validity. Effects of gender or age were assessed using MANOVAs.

RESULTS

The a-priori hypothesized model resulted in mostly adequate overall fit. Neither gender nor age group yielded considerable effects on the factor structure, but had small effects on means of raw score sums. Factorial validities could be confirmed. Scale sums are well-suited to rank respondents along the respective latent dimension.

CONCLUSION

The structure of the long version with the factors Rejection & Punishment, Emotional Warmth, and Control & Overprotection could be replicated for both father and mother items in the ultra-short screening version using confirmatory factor analyses. These results indicate that the ultra-short screening version is a time-saving and promising screening instrument for research settings and in individual counseling. However, the shortened scales do not necessarily represent the full spectrum covered by the full-scale dimensions.

Parental Child-Rearing Strategies Influence Self-Regulation, Socio-Emotional Adjustment, and Psychopathology in Early Adulthood: Evidence from a Retrospective Cohort Study

This study examined the association between recollected parental child-rearing strategies and individual differences in self-regulation, socio-emotional adjustment, and psychopathology in early adulthood. Undergraduate participants (N = 286) completed the EMBU - a measure of retrospective accounts of their parents' child-rearing behaviors - as well as self-report measures of self-regulation and socio-emotional adjustment across the domains of eating disorder symptoms, physically risky behavior, interpersonal problems, personal financial problems, and academic maladjustment. A subset of participants also completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF). Parental warmth was found to be related to overall better self-regulation and improved interpersonal and academic adjustment. In contrast, both parental rejection and overcontrol were found to be related to general deficits in self-regulation as well as adjustment difficulties and psychopathology. Parental rejection was most closely related to internalizing clinical presentations like anxiety, depression, and somatization, whereas overcontrol was most aligned with increased hypomanic activation and psychoticism. Mediation analyses demonstrated that the relationships between parental child-rearing strategies and socio-emotional adjustment and psychopathology were partially mediated by self-regulation. Future directions are suggested, including basic and translational research related to better understanding the roles of parental child-rearing and self-regulation in the development of internalizing symptoms, activation, and psychotic symptoms.

Father bonding and blood pressure in young adults from intact and divorced families

OBJECTIVE

The father-child relationship may uniquely affect offspring's physical and psychological health. Divorce may change the nature of the father-child bond and the long-term health consequences of paternal parenting behaviors. The current study investigated a possible biological pathway from father-child relationship quality to physical health outcomes in young adults.

METHODS

Cardiovascular stress reactivity to a lab-based challenge task and ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) were measured in young adults (mean age=20.1 years) from divorced (n=50) and intact, married (n=49) families. Participants completed self-report measures of paternal control and caring during childhood.

RESULTS

Higher perceived father control was associated with elevated BP reactivity to the task and higher ABP among participants from divorced families. Young adults from intact families who reported lower paternal caring demonstrated higher ABP.

CONCLUSIONS

The family context may provide an important backdrop for evaluating the long-term physiological consequences of fathers' parenting behaviors.