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Hara N, Onoguchi M, Kawaguchi H, Matsushima N, Houjou O, Murai M, Nakano K, Makino W. Study of Attenuation Correction Using a Cardiac Dynamic Phantom: Synchronized Time-Phase-Gated Attenuation Correction Method. J Nucl Med Technol 2024; 52:121-131. [PMID: 38627013 DOI: 10.2967/jnmt.123.266785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
In cardiac nuclear medicine examinations, absorption in the body is the main factor in the degradation of the image quality. The Chang and external source methods were used to correct for absorption in the body. However, fundamental studies on attenuation correction for electrocardiogram (ECG)-synchronized CT imaging have not been performed. Therefore, we developed and improved an ECG-synchronized cardiac dynamic phantom and investigated the synchronized time-phase-gated attenuation correction (STPGAC) method using ECG-synchronized SPECT and CT images of the same time phase. Methods: As a basic study, SPECT was performed using synchronized time-phase-gated (STPG) SPECT and non-phase-gated (NPG) SPECT. The attenuation-corrected images were, first, CT images with the same time phase as the ECG waveform of the gated SPECT acquisition (with CT images with the ECG waveform of the CT acquisition as the reference); second, CT images with asynchronous ECG; third, CT images of the 75% region; and fourth, CT images of the 40% region. Results: In the analysis of cardiac function in the phantom experiment, left ventricle ejection fraction (heart rate, 11.5%-13.4%; myocardial wall, 49.8%-55.7%) in the CT images was compared with that in the STPGAC method (heart rate, 11.5%-13.3%; myocardial wall, 49.6%-55.5%), which was closer in value to that of the STPGAC method. In the phantom polar map segment analyses, none of the images showed variability (F (10,10) < 0.5, P = 0.05). All images were correlated (r = 0.824-1.00). Conclusion: In this study, we investigated the STPGAC method using a SPECT/CT system. The STPGAC method showed similar values of cardiac function analysis to the CT images, suggesting that the STPGAC method accurately reconstructed the distribution of blood flow in the myocardial region. However, the target area for attenuation correction of the heart region was smaller than that of the whole body, and changing the gated SPECT conditions and attenuation-corrected images did not affect myocardial blood flow analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narihiro Hara
- Radiological Technology, Sumitomo Hospital, Osaka, Japan;
| | - Masahisa Onoguchi
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan; and
| | | | | | - Osamu Houjou
- Radiological Technology, Sumitomo Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masakazu Murai
- Radiological Technology, Sumitomo Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kohei Nakano
- Radiological Technology, Sumitomo Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Wakana Makino
- Department of Cardiology, Sumitomo Hospital, Osaka, Japan
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Takahashi Y, Nemoto A, Hosokawa S, Ito H, Oriuchi N. Construction of a Phantom for Image Quality Evaluation in PET/MRI System. ANNALS OF NUCLEAR CARDIOLOGY 2022; 8:103-108. [PMID: 36540182 PMCID: PMC9749749 DOI: 10.17996/anc.22-00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Background: There is no phantom for image quality test in magnetic resonance imaging combined with positron emission tomography systems (PET/MRI systems). In MRI, radioactive water phantom containing 2-deoxy-2-[F-18] fluoro-D-glucose (18F-FDG) cannot be used due to the dielectric effect. Even for phantoms filled with MR-available solutions, the source current of the RF coil is strongly disturbed as the diameter of the phantom increases. Stable MR images require proper phantom size and solution selection. Previous reports have not provided these details. Other than that, few existing phantoms evaluate negative signals such as N-13 ammonia (13N-NH3). We created a phantom for PET/MRI system for image quality test. Methods: The phantom for the PET/MRI system was assembled in two portions. One portion is a signal part containing 18F-FDG radioactive water. The other portion is filled with polyvinyl alcohol glue to construct MRI image to generate µ-map. The glue part is allowed to rewrite the table position overlaps with the first layer, and attenuation correction is performed. Signals are set as positive (4 times and twice higher than background radioactivity) and negative (no radioactivity) columns with different sizes (15 mm φ and 7 mm φ). The PET images with X-ray computed tomography-based attenuation correction (CT-AC) and MRI-AC were evaluated by %-contrasts, variation and uniformity. Results: The %-contrasts of the positive shallow signals with PET/magnetic resonance (MR) and PET/CT were 41.8% and 45.4%, respectively. And it of the positive deep signals with PET/MR and PET/CT were 40.7% and 44.9%. On the other hand, the %-contrasts of the negative shallow signals with PET/MR and PET/CT were 62.3% and 65.6%, respectively. And it of the negative deep signals with PET/MR and PET/CT were 60.7% and 63.7%. Moreover, the % Nj index of uniformity was 2.0% on PET/MRI images and 0.34% on PET/CT images. For negative signals that assume a decrease in myocardial blood flow, The image quality of MR-AC was almost the same as that of CT-AC. Consistency between the images after CT-AC and MR-AC correction were confirmed, and in particular, a stable MR-AC µ-map was obtained in the phantom study. Conclusion: The suggested prototype phantom for generating µ-map is reasonable and useful for evaluating PET/MRI image quality, based on the present standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Takahashi
- Department of Radiation Science, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Ayaka Nemoto
- Department of Advanced Clinical Research Center, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Shota Hosokawa
- Department of Radiation Science, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ito
- Department of Advanced Clinical Research Center, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
- Department of Radiology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Noboru Oriuchi
- Department of Advanced Clinical Research Center, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
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Subasinghe SAAS, Pautler RG, Samee MAH, Yustein JT, Allen MJ. Dual-Mode Tumor Imaging Using Probes That Are Responsive to Hypoxia-Induced Pathological Conditions. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12070478. [PMID: 35884281 PMCID: PMC9313010 DOI: 10.3390/bios12070478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia in solid tumors is associated with poor prognosis, increased aggressiveness, and strong resistance to therapeutics, making accurate monitoring of hypoxia important. Several imaging modalities have been used to study hypoxia, but each modality has inherent limitations. The use of a second modality can compensate for the limitations and validate the results of any single imaging modality. In this review, we describe dual-mode imaging systems for the detection of hypoxia that have been reported since the start of the 21st century. First, we provide a brief overview of the hallmarks of hypoxia used for imaging and the imaging modalities used to detect hypoxia, including optical imaging, ultrasound imaging, photoacoustic imaging, single-photon emission tomography, X-ray computed tomography, positron emission tomography, Cerenkov radiation energy transfer imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, electron paramagnetic resonance imaging, magnetic particle imaging, and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and mass spectrometric imaging. These overviews are followed by examples of hypoxia-relevant imaging using a mixture of probes for complementary single-mode imaging techniques. Then, we describe dual-mode molecular switches that are responsive in multiple imaging modalities to at least one hypoxia-induced pathological change. Finally, we offer future perspectives toward dual-mode imaging of hypoxia and hypoxia-induced pathophysiological changes in tumor microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robia G. Pautler
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (R.G.P.); (M.A.H.S.)
| | - Md. Abul Hassan Samee
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (R.G.P.); (M.A.H.S.)
| | - Jason T. Yustein
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences and the Department of Pediatrics in the Texas Children’s Cancer and Hematology Centers and The Faris D. Virani Ewing Sarcoma Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Matthew J. Allen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, 5101 Cass Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202, USA;
- Correspondence:
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Wang Y, An FF, Chan M, Friedman B, Rodriguez EA, Tsien RY, Aras O, Ting R. 18F-positron-emitting/fluorescent labeled erythrocytes allow imaging of internal hemorrhage in a murine intracranial hemorrhage model. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017; 37:776-786. [PMID: 28054494 PMCID: PMC5363488 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x16682510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An agent for visualizing cells by positron emission tomography is described and used to label red blood cells. The labeled red blood cells are injected systemically so that intracranial hemorrhage can be visualized by positron emission tomography (PET). Red blood cells are labeled with 0.3 µg of a positron-emitting, fluorescent multimodal imaging probe, and used to non-invasively image cryolesion induced intracranial hemorrhage in a murine model (BALB/c, 2.36 × 108 cells, 100 µCi, <4 mm hemorrhage). Intracranial hemorrhage is confirmed by histology, fluorescence, bright-field, and PET ex vivo imaging. The low required activity, minimal mass, and high resolution of this technique make this strategy an attractive alternative for imaging intracranial hemorrhage. PET is one solution to a spectrum of issues that complicate single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). For this reason, this application serves as a PET alternative to [99mTc]-agents, and SPECT technology that is used in 2 million annual medical procedures. PET contrast is also superior to gadolinium and iodide contrast angiography for its lack of clinical contraindications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Wang
- 1 Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Innovations Institute (MI3), New York, USA
| | - Fei-Fei An
- 1 Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Innovations Institute (MI3), New York, USA
| | - Mark Chan
- 1 Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Innovations Institute (MI3), New York, USA
| | - Beth Friedman
- 2 Department of Pharmacology, University of California, La Jolla, USA
| | - Erik A Rodriguez
- 2 Department of Pharmacology, University of California, La Jolla, USA
| | - Roger Y Tsien
- 2 Department of Pharmacology, University of California, La Jolla, USA.,3 Howard Hughes Medical Institute, La Jolla, USA
| | - Omer Aras
- 4 Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, USA
| | - Richard Ting
- 1 Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Innovations Institute (MI3), New York, USA
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Narihiro H, Masahisa O, Osamu H, Hiroyuki K, Masakazu M, Noriko M. Development of a 2-Layer Double-Pump Dynamic Cardiac Phantom. J Nucl Med Technol 2016; 44:31-5. [PMID: 26769601 DOI: 10.2967/jnmt.115.168252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The conventional dynamic cardiac phantom used in the field of nuclear medicine has a structure for which the size of the external side of the heart (the outer membrane substituting the myocardial layer) is fixed and only the inner side (the inner membrane substituting the ventricle part) moves anteroposteriorly. Therefore, its usefulness in technical evaluation is limited. Hence, we developed a new dynamic cardiac phantom in which the outer and inner membranes freely move. METHODS Using a SPECT/CT system, we performed validation by filling the myocardial layer of the dynamic cardiac phantom with solution and the ventricle part with contrast medium. We evaluated myocardial wall motions of 3 segments (basal, mid, and apical) by setting the stroke ratios at 20:20 and 10:10 (ventricle-to-myocardial layer ratio). RESULTS The myocardial wall motions (mean ± SD) at the stroke ratio of 20:20 were 7.50 ± 0.44, 11.15 ± 0.56, and 9.90 ± 0.24 mm in the basal, mid, and apical segments, respectively. The wall motions (mean ± SD) at the stroke ratio of 10:10 were 3.82 ± 0.43, 5.63 ± 0.39, and 4.53 ± 0.10 mm, respectively. CONCLUSION In our dynamic cardiac phantom, different movements could be induced in the myocardial wall by freely changing the stroke ratio. These results suggest that the use of this phantom can realize technical evaluation that presumes various clinical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hara Narihiro
- Sumitomo Hospital, Radiological Technology, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan; and Kanazawa University, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kodatsuno, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Onoguchi Masahisa
- Kanazawa University, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kodatsuno, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hojyo Osamu
- Sumitomo Hospital, Radiological Technology, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan; and
| | - Kawaguchi Hiroyuki
- Sumitomo Hospital, Radiological Technology, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan; and
| | - Murai Masakazu
- Sumitomo Hospital, Radiological Technology, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan; and
| | - Matsushima Noriko
- Sumitomo Hospital, Radiological Technology, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan; and
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124I-PET Assessment of Human Sodium Iodide Symporter Reporter Gene Activity for Highly Sensitive In Vivo Monitoring of Teratoma Formation in Mice. Mol Imaging Biol 2015; 17:874-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s11307-015-0857-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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A meta-analysis comparing SPECT with PET for the assessment of myocardial viability in patients with coronary artery disease. Nucl Med Commun 2014; 35:947-54. [DOI: 10.1097/mnm.0000000000000140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Lehner S, Todica A, Brunner S, Uebleis C, Wang H, Wängler C, Herbach N, Herrler T, Böning G, Laubender RP, Cumming P, Schirrmacher R, Franz W, Hacker M. Temporal Changes in Phosphatidylserine Expression and Glucose Metabolism after Myocardial Infarction: An in Vivo Imaging Study in Mice. Mol Imaging 2012. [DOI: 10.2310/7290.2012.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Lehner
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Andrei Todica
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Stefan Brunner
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Christopher Uebleis
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Hao Wang
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Carmen Wängler
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Nadja Herbach
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Tanja Herrler
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Guido Böning
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Rüdiger Paul Laubender
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Paul Cumming
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Ralf Schirrmacher
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Wolfgang Franz
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
| | - Marcus Hacker
- From the Departments of Nuclear Medicine, Cardiology, Experimental Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, PQ
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Ting R, Aguilera TA, Crisp JL, Hall DJ, Eckelman WC, Vera DR, Tsien RY. Fast 18F labeling of a near-infrared fluorophore enables positron emission tomography and optical imaging of sentinel lymph nodes. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 21:1811-9. [PMID: 20873712 PMCID: PMC2957852 DOI: 10.1021/bc1001328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We combine a novel boronate trap for F− with a near-infrared fluorophore into a single molecule. Attachment to targeting ligands enables localization by positron emission tomography (PET) and near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF). Our first application of this generic tag is to label Lymphoseek (tilmanocept), an agent designed for receptor-specific sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping. The new conjugate incorporates 18F− in a single, aqueous step, targets mouse SLN rapidly (1 h) with reduced distal lymph node accumulation, permits PET or scintigraphic imaging of SLN, and enables NIRF-guided excision and histological verification even after 18F decay. This embodiment is superior to current SLN mapping agents such as nontargeted [99mTc]sulfur colloids and Isosulfan Blue, as well as the phase III targeted ligand [99mTc]SPECT Lymphoseek counterpart, species that are visible by SPECT or visible absorbance separately. Facile incorporation of 18F into a NIRF probe should promote many synergistic PET and NIRF combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ting
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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Shin T, Hu HH, Pohost GM, Nayak KS. Three dimensional first-pass myocardial perfusion imaging at 3T: feasibility study. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2008; 10:57. [PMID: 19077220 PMCID: PMC2614420 DOI: 10.1186/1532-429x-10-57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2008] [Accepted: 12/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In patients with ischemic heart disease, accurate assessment of the extent of myocardial perfusion deficit may be important in predicting prognosis of clinical cardiac outcomes. The aim of this study was to compare the ability of three dimensional (3D) and of two dimensional (2D) multi-slice myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) using cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) in determining the size of defects, and to demonstrate the feasibility of 3D MPI in healthy volunteers at 3 Tesla. METHODS A heart phantom was used to compare the accuracy of 3D and 2D multi-slice MPI in estimating the volume fraction of seven rubber insets which simulated transmural myocardial perfusion defects. Three sets of cross-sectional planes were acquired for 2D multi-slice imaging, where each set was shifted along the partition encoding direction by +/- 10 mm. 3D first-pass contrast-enhanced (0.1 mmol/kg Gd-DTPA) MPI was performed in three volunteers with sensitivity encoding for six-fold acceleration. The upslope of the myocardial time-intensity-curve and peak SNR/CNR values were calculated. RESULTS Mean/standard deviation of errors in estimating the volume fraction across the seven defects were -0.44/1.49%, 2.23/2.97%, and 2.59/3.18% in 3D, 2D 4-slice, and 2D 3-slice imaging, respectively. 3D MPI performed in healthy volunteers produced excellent quality images with whole left ventricular (LV) coverage. Peak SNR/CNR was 57.6 +/- 22.0/37.5 +/- 19.7 over all segments in the first eight slices. CONCLUSION 3D performed better than 2D multi-slice MPI in estimating the size of perfusion defects in phantoms. Highly accelerated 3D MPI at 3T was feasible in volunteers, allowing whole LV coverage with excellent image quality and high SNR/CNR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taehoon Shin
- Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Houchun H Hu
- Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Gerald M Pohost
- Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Krishna S Nayak
- Ming Hsieh Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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