Residual hepatocellular carcinoma after oxaliplatin treatment has increased metastatic potential in a nude mouse model and is attenuated by Songyou Yin

Knockdown of OLR1 weakens glycolytic metabolism to repress colon cancer cell proliferation and chemoresistance by downregulating SULT2B1 via c-MYC

Chemoresistance is one of the major problems of colon cancer treatment. In tumors, glycolytic metabolism has been identified to promote cell proliferation and chemoresistance. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying glycolytic metabolism and chemoresistance in colon cancer remains enigmatic. Hence, this research was designed to explore the mechanism underlying the OLR1/c-MYC/SULT2B1 axis in the regulation of glycolytic metabolism, to affect colon cancer cell proliferation and chemoresistance. Colon cancer tissues and LoVo cells were attained, where OLR1, c-MYC, and SULT2B1 expression was detected by immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and western blot analysis. Next, ectopic expression and knockdown assays were implemented in LoVo cells. Cell proliferation was detected by MTS assay and clone formation. Extracellular acidification, glucose uptake, lactate production, ATP/ADP ratio, and GLUT1 and LDHA expression were measured to evaluate glycolytic metabolism. Then, the transfected cells were treated with chemotherapeutic agents to assess drug resistance by MTS experiments and P-gp and SMAD4 expression by RT-qPCR. A nude mouse model of colon cancer transplantation was constructed for in vivo verification. The levels of OLR1, c-MYC, and SULT2B1 were upregulated in colon cancer tissues and cells. Mechanistically, OLR1 increased c-MYC expression to upregulate SULT2B1 in colon cancer cells. Moreover, knockdown of OLR1, c-MYC, or SULT2B1 weakened glycolytic metabolism, proliferation, and chemoresistance of colon cancer cells. In vivo experiments authenticated that OLR1 knockdown repressed the tumorigenesis and chemoresistance in nude mice by downregulating c-MYC and SULT2B1. Conclusively, knockdown of OLR1 might diminish SULT2B1 expression by downregulating c-MYC, thereby restraining glycolytic metabolism to inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation and chemoresistance.

Anti-Cancer Activity Profiling of Chemotherapeutic Agents in 3D Co-Cultures of Pancreatic Tumor Spheroids with Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts and Macrophages

Activated pancreatic stellate cells (aPSCs) and M2 macrophages modulate tumor progression and therapeutic efficacy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) via epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Here, our aim was to analyze the anti-invasion effects of anti-cancer agents where EMT-inducing cancer-stroma interaction occurs under three-dimensional (3D) culture conditions. We used microfluidic channel chips to co-culture pancreatic tumor spheroids (TSs) with aPSCs and THP-1-derived M2 macrophages (M2 THP-1 cells) embedded in type I collagen. Under stromal cell co-culture conditions, PANC-1 TSs displayed elevated expression of EMT-related proteins and increased invasion and migration. When PANC-1 TSs were exposed to gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil, oxaliplatin, or paclitaxel, 30-50% cells were found unaffected, with no significant changes in the dose-response profiles under stromal cell co-culture conditions. This indicated intrinsic resistance to these drugs and no further induction of drug resistance by stromal cells. Paclitaxel had a significant anti-invasion effect; in contrast, oxaliplatin did not show such effect despite its specific cytotoxicity in M2 THP-1 cells. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the TS-stroma co-culture model of PDAC is useful for activity profiling of anti-cancer agents against cancer and stromal cells, and analyzing the relationship between anti-stromal activity and anti-invasion effects.

All-Trans Retinoic Acid and Doxorubicin Delivery by Folic Acid Modified Polymeric Micelles for the Modulation of Pin1-Mediated DOX-Induced Breast Cancer Stemness and Metastasis

Stemness and metastasis are the two main challenges in cancer therapy and are related to disease relapse post-treatment. They both have a strong correlation with chemoresistance and poor prognosis, ultimately leading to treatment failure. It has been reported that chemotherapy can induce stemness and metastasis in many cancer types, especially treatment with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX) in breast cancer. A combination treatment is an efficient and elegant approach in cancer therapy through simultaneous delivery of two or more drugs with a delivery system for its synergistic effect, which is not an additive of two individual drugs. Herein, we report a combinatorial system with DOX and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) to address both of the above issues. As a common critical regulatory factor for oncogenic signal transduction pathways, Pin1 is a specific isomerase highly expressed within various tumor cells. ATRA, a newly identified Pin1 inhibitor, can abolish several oncogenic pathways by effectively inhibiting and degrading overexpressed Pin1. We successfully developed a folic acid (FA)-modified chitosan (CSO)-derived polymer (FA-CSOSA) and obtained FA-CSOSA/DOX and FA-CSOSA/ATRA drug-loaded micelles. FA modification can improve the uptake of the nanoparticles in tumor cells and tumor sites via folate receptor-mediated cell internalization. Compared to treatment with DOX alone, the combined treatment induced 4T1 cell apoptosis in a synergistic manner. Reduced stemness-related protein expression and inhibited metastasis were observed during treatment with FA-CSOSA/DOX and FA-CSOSA/ATRA and were found to be associated with Pin1. Further in vivo experiments showed that treatment with FA-CSOSA/DOX and FA-CSOSA/ATRA resulted in 85.5% tumor inhibition, which was 2.5-fold greater than that of cells treated with DOX·HCl alone. This work presents a new paradigm for addressing chemotherapy-induced side effects via degradation of Pin1 induced by tumor-targeted delivery of DOX and ATRA.

Inositol hexaphosphate sensitizes hepatocellular carcinoma to oxaliplatin relating inhibition of CCN2-LRP6-β-catenin-ABCG1 signaling pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a drastic problem in China. Oxaliplatin, a platinum-based chemotherapy drug, has limited efficacy in treating HCC, characterized by intrinsic and acquired resistance. Inositol hexaphosphate (IP6), a carbohydrate abundant in grains, has contributed to the rising popularity of whole grain products consumption for the potential protection against dozens of diseases. However, the therapeutic potential of IP6 in halting the progression of HCC remains unclear, especially in combination with oxaliplatin. The anti-proliferation and anti-migration effects of IP6 were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The synergistic and sequential anti-proliferative effect with IP6 and oxaliplatin were also evaluated in HCC. Finally, the role of CCN2-LRP6-β-catenin-ABCG1 signaling in oxaliplatin resistance and IP6 treatment was evaluated. We proved that IP6 treatment exhibited independent anticancer effect and synergistic anti-proliferative effects in combination with oxaliplatin in HCC. Specifically, up-regulation of ABCG1 and CCN2 were associated with oxaliplatin resistance. ABCG1 was acting as a downstream molecule of the CCN2-LRP6-Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in HCC cells. The IP6 treatment exhibited inhibition of CCN2-LRP6-Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and downregulation of ABCG1 in HCC cells. When combined with ABCG1 knocking down in HCC cells, the anti-proliferative effect of oxaliplatin was partly impaired in combination with IP6. We suggested that IP6 treatment renders HCC sensitive to oxaliplatin and breaking the CCN2-LRP6-β-catenin-ABCG1 signaling pathway is one of the mechanism after IP6 treatment.

Adverse effects of chemoradiotherapy on invasion and metastasis of tumor cells

The phenomenon of enhanced invasion and metastasis of residual tumor cells has been observed in an increasing number of patients receiving chemoradiotherapy recently, and tumor metastasis will undoubtedly limit patient prognosis. However, the key mechanism by which chemoradiotherapy affects the invasion and metastasis of tumor cells remains unclear. Studies have shown that chemoradiotherapy may directly act on tumor cells and alter the tumor microenvironment, or induce cell apoptosis and autophagy to promote tumor cell survival and metastasis. In this review, we summarize the potential mechanisms by which chemoradiotherapy may affect the biological behavior of tumor cells and open up new avenues for reducing tumor recurrence and metastasis after treatment. These insights will improve the efficacy of chemoradiotherapy.

Advances in Molecular Mechanisms for Traditional Chinese Medicine Actions in Regulating Tumor Immune Responses

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been developed for thousands of years with its various biological activities. The interest in TCM in tumor prevention and treatment is rising with its synergistic effect on tumor cells and tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIM). Characteristic of TCM fits well within the whole system and multi-target cancer treatment. Herein we discuss the underlying mechanisms of TCM actions in TIM via regulating immunosuppressive cells, including restoring the antigen presentation function of dendritic cells, enhancing NK cells-mediated killing activity, restraining the functions of myeloid cell-derived suppressor cells, and inhibiting cancer-associated fibroblasts. TCM also regulates tumor progression through enhancing immune response, preventing immune escape and inducing cell death of tumor cells, which triggers immune response in nearby cells. In addition, we discuss TCM in clinical applications and the advantages and disadvantages of TCM in cancer prevention and treatment, as well as current therapeutic challenges and strategies. It might be helpful for understanding the therapeutic potential of TCM for cancer in clinic.

Curcumin may reverse 5-fluorouracil resistance on colonic cancer cells by regulating TET1-NKD-Wnt signal pathway to inhibit the EMT progress

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Colorectal cancer is a kind of gastrointestinal tumor with rising morbidity and mortality. 5-fluorouracil is one of the most effective chemotherapy drugs for the treatment of CRC. However, clinical data reported dramatic resistance on the treatment for CRC with 5-fluorouracil. Present study aims to explore the anti-resistant effect of curcumin and its mechanism.

METHODS

MTT assay was used to evaluate the proliferation of rHCT-116 cells. Flow cytometry was used to determine the apoptosis and cell cycle of rHCT-116 cells. Western Blot was performed to detect the expression level of TET1, NKD2, E-cadherin, Vimentin, β-catenin, TCF4 and Axin in transfected rHCT-116 cells.

RESULTS

5-fluorouracil resistant HCT-116 cells were successfully established. Curcumin was found to be effective in the inhibition of proliferation, inducement of apoptosis and block of G0/G1 phase on 5-fluorouracil treated HCT-116 cells. The expression of TET1 and NKD2 was greatly inhibited by high dosage of curcumin. The WNT signal pathway and EMT progress were suppressed in rHCT-116 cells by high dosage of curcumin. The inhibitory effects of curcumin on WNT signal pathway and EMT progress were verified to be consistent with Pax-6, TET1 and NKD2.

CONCLUSION

Curcumin might exert anti-resistant effect of 5-FU on HCT-116 cells by regulating the TET1-NKD2-WNT signal pathway to inhibit the EMT progress.

Different Proteins Regulated Apoptosis, Proliferation and Metastasis of Lung Adenocarcinoma After Radiotherapy at Different Time

Introduction

The biological changes after irradiation in lung cancer cells are important to reduce recurrence and metastasis of lung cancer. To optimize radiotherapy of lung adenocarcinoma, our study systematically explored the mechanisms of biological behaviors in residual A549 and XWLC-05 cells after irradiation.

Methods

Colony formation assay, cell proliferation assay, cell migration assay, flow cytometry, BALB/C-nu mice xenograft models and Western blot of pan-AKT, p-Akt380, p-Akt473, PCNA, DNA-PKCS, KU70, KU80, CD133, CD144, MMP2 and P53 were used in our study to assess biological changes after irradiation with 0, 4 and 8 Gy at 0–336 hr after irradiation in vitro and 20 Gy at transplantation group, irradiated transplantation group, residual tumor 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days groups in vivo.

Results

The ability of cell proliferation and radiosensitivity of residual XWLC-05 cells was better than A549 cells after radiation in vivo and in vitro. MMP-2 has statistical differences in vitro and in vivo and increased with the migratory ability of cells in vitro. PCNA and P53 have statistical differences in XWLC-05 and A549 cells and the changes of them are similar to the proliferation of residual cells within first 336 hr after irradiation in vitro. Pan-AKT increased after irradiation, and residual tumor 21-day group (1.5722) has statistic differences between transplantation group (0.9763, p=0.018) and irradiated transplantation group (0.8455, p=0.006) in vivo. Pan-AKT rose to highest when 21-day after residual tumor reach to 0.5 mm². MMP2 has statistical differences between transplantation group (0.4619) and residual tumor 14-day group (0.8729, p=0.043). P53 has statistical differences between residual tumor 7-day group (0.6184) and residual tumor 28 days group (1.0394, p=0.007). DNA-PKCS has statistical differences between residual tumor 28 days group (1.1769) and transplantation group (0.2483, p=0.010), irradiated transplantation group (0.1983, p=0.002) and residual tumor 21 days group (0.2017, p=0.003), residual tumor 0 days group (0.5992) and irradiated transplantation group (0.1983, p=0.027) and residual tumor 21 days group (0.2017, p=0.002). KU80 and KU70 have no statistical differences at any time point.

Conclusion

Different proteins regulated apoptosis, proliferation and metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma after radiotherapy at different times. MMP-2 might regulate metastasis ability of XWLC-05 and A549 cells in vitro and in vivo. PCNA and P53 may play important roles in proliferation of vitro XWLC-05 and A549 cells within first 336 hr after irradiation in vitro. After that, P53 may through PI3K/AKT pathway regulate cell proliferation after irradiation in vitro. DNA-PKCS may play a more important role in DNA damage repair than KU70 and KU80 after 336 hr in vitro because it rapidly rose than KU70 and KU80 after irradiation. Different cells have different time rhythm in apoptosis, proliferation and metastasis after radiotherapy. Time rhythm of cells after irradiation should be delivered and more attention should be paid to resist cancer cell proliferation and metastasis.

CCN2-MAPK-Id-1 loop feedback amplification is involved in maintaining stemness in oxaliplatin-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Chemotherapy is an alternative treatment for advanced HCCs, but chemo-resistance prevents cancer therapies from achieving stable and complete responses. Understanding the underlying mechanisms in chemo-resistance is critical to improve the efficacy of HCC.

Methods

The expression levels of Id-1 and CCN2 were detected in large cohorts of HCCs, and functional analyses of Id-1 and CCN2 were performed both in vitro and in vivo. cDNA microarrays were performed to evaluate the alterations of expression profiling of HCC cells with overexpression of CCN2. Finally, the role of downstream signaling of MAPK/Id-1 signaling pathway in oxaliplatin resistance were also explored.

Results

The increased expression of Id-1 and CCN2 were closely related to oxaliplatin resistance in HCC. Upregulation of CCN2 and Id-1 was independently associated with shorter survival and increased recurrence in HCC patients, and significantly enhanced oxaliplatin resistance and promoted lung metastasis in vivo, whereas knock-down of their expression significantly reversed the chemo-resistance and inhibited HCC cell stemness. cDNA microarrays and PCR revealed that Id-1 and MAPK pathway were the downstream signaling of CCN2. CCN2 significantly enhanced oxaliplatin resistance by activating the MAPK/Id-1 signaling pathway, and Id-1 could upregulate CCN2 in a positive feedback manner.

Conclusions

CCN2/MAPK/Id-1 loop feedback amplification is involved in oxaliplatin resistance, and the combination of oxaliplatin with inhibitor of CCN2 or MAPK signaling could provide a promising approach to ameliorating oxaliplatin resistance in HCC.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s12072-019-09960-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cyanidin inhibits EMT induced by oxaliplatin via targeting the PDK1-PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Anthocyanins have been shown to exhibit antitumor activity in several cancers in vitro and in vivo. Oxaliplatin is widely used as an anti-cancer drug. However, a large proportion of patients receiving platinum-based anti-cancer drug treatments will relapse because of metastasis and drug resistance. The aim of this study is to discover an effective anthocyanin that possesses the combinational anti-metastatic effects of oxaliplatin. Our results showed that cyanidin, one of the main constituents of anthocyanins, widely found in black rice, black bean, Hawthorn and other foods, could reverse drug resistance and enhance the effects of oxaliplatin on hepatic cellular cancer (HCC). Cyanidin inhibited migration and reversed EMT biomarker changes induced by low dose OXA. Moreover, 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) can be considered a potential target and cyanidin significantly increased OXA sensitivity and inhibited the EMT induced by OXA via PI3K/Akt signaling in HCC.

Cu2-xSe nanoparticles enhance the anticancer activity of oxaliplatin by inhibiting autophagic degradation

Aim: To confirm Cu2-xSe nanoparticles (NPs) could inhibit autophagic degradation and based on this property to develop a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Materials & methods: Transmission electronic microscopy and confocal laser-scanning microscope were used to observe the accumulation of autophagosome. Western blot was used to investigate the expression of autophagy-associated proteins. Chemotherapeutic drug oxaliplatin was cotreatment with Cu2-xSe in vivo and in vitro to study therapeutic efficacy of autophagy caused by Cu2-xSe NPs. Results & conclusion: Cu2-xSe NPs significantly induce autophagosome accumulation in hepatocellular carcinoma cells, and they mainly inhibit the late-stage autophagy degradation through reducing lysosomal cathepsin activity. Moreover, Cu2-xSe NPs enhance the anticancer activity of oxaliplatin in vivo and in vitro through blocking autophagosome degradation.

Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz Seed Extract inhibits human hepatocellular carcinoma cell migration and invasion in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The high recurrence rate postoperative and extensive metastases have become the obstacle of Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) efficacy improvements, which contribute to most of the patient mortality. Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz has been shown pharmacological activities in clinical and anti-HCC biological activity in previous research, but its potential function of anti-metastasis remains unknown.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

To make sure whether ATKSE inhibits migration and invasion in HCC cell lines in vitro and the potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A UHPLC-HRMS analysis was adopted to identify and control the quality of the ethanol extract of Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz Seed (abbreviated ATKSE). Cell viability of three kinds of HCC cell lines (HEPG2, HUH7, and SMMC7721) was detected using MTT assay and Flow cytometry. Adhesion capacity was measured by cell-matrigel adhesion assay. Wounded healing and Matrigel-transwell invasion assays were performed to assess cell migration and invasion, respectively. Western blot assay was used to detect several metastasis-related protein molecules, including FAK adhesion signaling, cadherin molecules, and MMPs. ELISA assay was used to evaluate the secreted MMP9 level.

RESULTS

ATKSE significantly suppressed HCC cells viability and proliferation (from 0.9 up to 3.0 mg/ml); then under sub-lethal concentration (from 0.25 up to 1.0 mg/ml), ATKSE inhibited cell adhesion, migration, and invasion in a way of dose-dependent. Several metastatic-related molecules or pathway, including FAK adhesion signaling, cadherin molecules, and MMPs, took part in this process. There are both differences and commonalities in various cell lines: typically such as p-FAK was down-regulated by ATKSE in both HEPG2 and SMMC7721, while was raised in HUH7; Further attempts on the combination of ATKSE and FAK inhibitors, provide us with the enhanced inhibitory effects of invasion and migration in HEPG2 and HUH7 cells, as well as antagonistic effects in SMMC7721. As a target or potential mechanism, it may be more valuable to concern FAK inhibition by ATKSE in HEPG2 cells than in the other two cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that ATKSE has anti-metastasis potency in HCC cells.

Interferon-α Combined With Herbal Compound "Songyou Yin" Effectively Inhibits the Increased Invasiveness and Metastasis by Insufficient Radiofrequency Ablation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in an Animal Model

Objective: We had previously proved that insufficient radiofrequency ablation (RFA) could enhance invasiveness and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is mediated by activating β-catenin signaling. Thus, the aim of the present study was to demonstrate whether the combined treatment of interferon-α (IFN-α) and “Songyou Yin” (SYY) minimizes the pro-metastatic effects of insufficient RFA, as well as to explore its underlying mechanism. Methods: Insufficient RFA was performed in an orthotopic nude mice model of HCCLM3 with high metastatic potential. The effects of IFN-α, SYY, and combined IFN-α and SYY were observed in the animal model. Tumor sizes, lung metastasis, and survival time were assessed. Immunochemistry staining, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot were used to examine gene expression related to metastasis and angiogenesis in residual cancer after insufficient RFA. Results: For up to 8 weeks of treatment, the combined therapy significantly decreased the residual cancer sizes, minimized the lung metastasis rate, and prolonged the survival time of nude mice, which might be due to suppression of the EMT via β-catenin signal blockade, in addition to attenuating angiogenesis in residual cancer after insufficient RFA. Conclusion: IFN-α combined with SYY significantly weakened the enhanced metastatic potential of residual cancer after insufficient RFA by attenuating EMT, which is mediated through inhibiting activation of β-catenin. In addition, decreasing angiogenesis of residual cancer might also play a certain role.

Magnesium isoglycyrrhizinate has hepatoprotective effects in an oxaliplatin‑induced model of liver injury

Oxaliplatin is a core chemotherapeutic agent used for the treatment of colorectal liver metastasis; however, liver injury caused by oxaliplatin increases the risk of peri‑operative morbidity and mortality. Magnesium isoglycyrrhizinate (MgiG) is a magnesium salt of 18‑α glycyrrhizic acid stereoisomer that has demonstrated liver‑protective effects against toxins and hepatitis. In the present study, the liver‑protective effect of MgiG against oxaliplatin‑induced hepatic injury was examined in vitro and in vivo. The results demonstrated that MgiG had a protective effect against oxaliplatin‑induced liver injury, as evidenced by the alleviation of hepatic pathological damage and transaminase levels. The protective effect of MgiG was demonstrated to be correlated with inhibition of oxidative stress, the interleukin‑6 pathway and the coagulation system. Altogether, the present findings suggested that MgiG may have potential value in the clinical prevention and treatment of oxaliplatin‑induced liver injury.

The Rho GTPase Rnd1 inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma and is a favorable anti-metastasis target

Rnd1, a member of Rho GTPases, was found to be downregulated in human malignancies and downregulation of Rnd1 promotes tumor invasion via various mechanisms. However, the role of Rnd1 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression remains unclear. In this study, our results demonstrated that Rnd1 was downregulated in HCC cells and in human HCC tissues. Low expression of Rnd1 was associated with aggressive clinic-pathologic characteristics, such as vascular invasion, and poor prognosis in patients who underwent curative surgery for HCC. Overexpression of Rnd1-suppressed cell growth, migration, invasion, and EMT processes in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, Rnd1 blocked HCC progression by restricting EMT process through inhibition of the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade, and this was correlated with a reduction in RhoA activity. Combination of Rnd1 overexpression with sorafenib, a Raf signaling pathway inhibitor, showed a more potent inhibition on HCC metastasis. Moreover, epigenetic inhibitors (5-Aza and SAHA) increased the expression of Rnd1, and potentiated sorafenib-induced toxicity in HCC cells. In a conclusion, Rnd1-suppressed EMT-mediated metastasis of HCC by reducing the activity of the RhoA/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathway, functioning as a favorable anti-metastasis target for HCC patients. Rnd1 overexpression in combination with sorafenib may result in enhanced anti-metastasis efficacy in HCC.

Scorpion inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most malignant diseases worldwide. The unfavorable clinical outcome and poor prognosis are due to high rates of recurrence and metastasis after treatments. Some scholars of traditional Chinese medicine suggested that endogenous wind-evil had played an important role in metastasis of malignant tumor. Therefore, the drug of dispelling wind-evil could be used to prevent cancer metastasis and improve the poor prognosis. So we wondered whether Scorpion, one of the most important wind calming drugs, has antitumor effect especially in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis of HCC in this research. We found that Scorpion-medicated serum could inhibit proliferation, induce apoptosis, and decrease migration and invasion capacity of Hepa1-6 cells in vitro. Meanwhile, we observed that water decoction of Scorpion restrained tumor growth and metastasis in nude mouse of HCC metastasis models. Further experiments showed that Scorpion could suppress EMT, which is characterized by increased epithelial marker E-cadherin expression and decreased mesenchymal markers N-cadherin and Snail expression following Scorpion treatment both in vitro and in vivo. These results suggested that the Scorpion could inhibit Hepa1-6 cells' invasion and metastasis in part by reversing EMT and providing a possible potential approach for preventing HCC metastasis. Impact statement The unfavorable clinical outcome and poor prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are due to high rates of recurrence and metastasis after treatments. Here we found Scorpion, one of the most important wind calming drugs, has antitumor effect. Scorpion-medicated serum inhibited the proliferation, induced apoptosis, and decreased migration and invasion capacity of Hepa1-6 cells in vitro. Water decoction of Scorpion restrained tumor growth and metastasis in nude mouse of HCC metastasis models. Further experiments showed that Scorpion could suppress EMT of HCC both in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggested that the Scorpion could inhibit Hepa1-6 cells' invasion and metastasis in part by reversing EMT and providing a possible potential approach for preventing HCC metastasis.

LINC00152 is a potential biomarker involved in the modulation of biological characteristics of residual colorectal cancer cells following chemoradiotherapy

Concurrent radiotherapy and chemotherapy is a widely used, comprehensive treatment for rectal cancer. By studying the impact of concurrent chemoradiotherapy on the invasion and migration of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells and researching the associated molecular mechanisms, the present study aimed to provide a novel method to improve the therapeutic effect of this treatment against CRC. Human HCT116 and HT29 CRC cells were simultaneously treated with 4 Gy of 6 MV X-rays and 10 µmol/l 5-fluorouracil to establish a residual cell model. Transwell migration and invasion experiments were used to analyse the invasion and migration of the cells. The expression of long non-coding (lnc)RNAs was detected using a gene chip, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to determine lncRNA expression levels. Specific small interfering RNAs were transfected into HCT116 residual cells to silence the expression of the identified key genes. The migration and invasion of residual CRC cells were demonstrated to be significantly increased compared with the original cells. Pvt1 oncogene, long-chain non-protein-coding RNA 152 (LINC00152), and MIR22 host gene were selected as potential targets. However, the migration and invasion of residual HCT116 cancer cells were only significantly decreased following silencing of LINC00152 expression. LINC00152 may therefore be a potential biomarker involved in modulation of the biological characteristics of residual CRC cells following chemoradiotherapy.

Dihydroartemisinin inhibits EMT induced by platinum-based drugs via Akt-Snail pathway

Artemisinin and its derivatives exhibit a high activity against a range of cancer cell types both in vitro and in vivo. In clinical practice, platinum-based anti-cancer chemotherapy is widely used to treat tumors. However, a large proportion of patients receiving these treatments will relapse because of metastasis and drug resistance. The purpose of this study is to explore the combinational anti-metastatic effect of platinum-based drugs and dihydroartemisinin (DHA). Both DDP and oxaliplatin (OXA) at low doses could induce epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC. Meanwhile, co-administration of DHA could enhance DDP and OXA chemosensitivity in HCC and reverse drug resistance. DHA reversed the morphological changes induced by DDP or OXA and reversed the changes in EMT biomarkers induced by DDP and OXA in HCC in vitro and in vivo via AKT–Snail signaling. DHA significantly increased platinum-based drug sensitivity and suppressed EMT induced by platinum-based drugs via AKT–Snail signaling in HCC. DHA is expected to become the new adjuvant for chemotherapy.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 is overexpressed in and promotes migration and invasion of drug-resistant cancer cells

Drug resistance and metastasis significantly hinder chemotherapy and worsen prognoses in cancer. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) belongs to the TGF-β superfamily, has broad biological activities in cell proliferation and cartilage differentiation and is also able to induce migration and invasion. Herein, we investigated the role of BMP4 in the regulation of metastasis in paclitaxel-resistant human esophageal carcinoma EC109 cells (EC109/Taxol) and docetaxel-resistant human gastric cancer MGC803 cells (MGC/Doc). In these drug-resistant cell lines, we found the cell motility was enhanced and BMP4 was up-regulated relative to their respective parental cell lines. Consistent with in vitro assays, migration potential and BMP4 expression were increased in EC109/Taxol nude mice. Furthermore, to address whether BMP4 was required to enhance the metastatic in EC109/Taxol cells, the pharmacological inhibitor of BMP signaling dorsomorphin was used; meanwhile, we found that the migration and invasion abilities were inhibited. Moreover, the canonical Smad signaling pathway was investigated. Overall, our studies demonstrated that BMP4 participates in the regulation of invasion and migration by EC109/Taxol cells, and inhibition of BMP4 may be a novel strategy to interfere with metastasis in cancer therapy.

Combined effects of furanodiene and doxorubicin on the migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells in vitro

Furanodiene is one of the major bioactive components isolated from the natural product of the plant, Curcuma wenyujin Y.H. Chen et C. Ling. Furanodiene has been found to exert anticancer effects in various types of cancer cell lines, as well as exhibit antimetastatic activities. However, the antimetastatic capacity of furanodiene in combination with the common chemotherapy drug doxorubicin has not been investigated. We found that doxorubicin at a non-toxic concentration induced cell migration and cell invasion in highly metastatic breast cancer cells. Combinational treatments with furanodiene and doxorubicin blocked the invasion and migration of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells in vitro. We also clarified the effects of the combination on the signaling pathways involved in migration, invasion, and cytoskeletal organization. When combined with doxorubicin, furanodiene downregulated the expression of integrin αV and β-catenin and inhibited the phosphorylation of paxillin, Src, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), p85, and Akt. Moreover, combinational treatments also resulted in a decrease in matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). Further study demonstrated that the co-treatments with furanodiene did not significantly alter the effects of doxorubicin on the tubulin cytoskeleton, represented by no influence on the expression levels of RhoA, Cdc42, N-WASP, and α/β tubulin. These observations indicate that furanodiene is a potential agent that may be utilized to improve the anticancer efficacy of doxorubicin and overcome the risk of chemotherapy in highly metastatic breast cancer.

Treatment with the herbal formula Songyou Yin inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma through downregulation of TGF-β1 expression and inhibition of the SMAD2/3 signaling pathway

It was previously reported that treatment with the herbal formula Songyou Yin (SYY) may serve a role in attenuating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). In the present study, the effect of treatment with SYY on transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced EMT was investigated and the potential underlying molecular mechanisms were evaluated. MHCC97H cells were pretreated with SYY for 4 weeks and subsequently named MHCC97HSYY cells. Simultaneously, MHCC97H cells were cultured for 4 weeks without SYY and used as a negative control. Western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays demonstrated that treatment with SYY inhibited EMT-associated changes and TGF-β1 expression in MHCC97H cells. MHCC97H and MHCC97HSYY cells were treated with 10 ng/ml TGF-β1 to induce EMT. The results of the present study demonstrated that pretreatment with SYY markedly inhibited TGF-β1-induced morphological changes, and reversed the expression of the EMT markers E-cadherin and N-cadherin. In addition, expression levels of the TGF-β1 downstream proteins, phosphorylated mothers against decapentaplegic homologs (p-SMAD)2 and 3, were reduced. Transwell assays indicated that pretreatment with SYY inhibited TGF-β1-induced cancer cell invasion and migration. The results of the present study indicate that SYY inhibited EMT through attenuation of TGF-β1 expression, and downregulation of p-SMAD2 and 3.

Astragaloside IV inhibits metastasis in hepatoma cells through the suppression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition via the Akt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway

Our previous studies demonstrated that traditional Chinese herbal medicine 'Songyou Yin' inhibited the growth and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells, and altered epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers in oxaliplatin‑treated HCC tissues and cell lines. In the present study, we aimed to explore whether astragaloside IV (AS-IV), a component of 'Songyou Yin', can affect the growth and invasion of HCC cells and the underlying mechanism involved. Human HCC cell lines Huh7 and MHCC97-H, with low and high metastatic potential, respectively, were treated with increasing doses of AS-IV. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), plate clone formation, Transwell, wound healing and immunofluorescence assays were used to investigate the effects of AS-IV on HCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion. The protein expression levels were analyzed by western blotting and immunofluorescence assay. The CCK-8 and plate clone formation assays showed that AS-IV had little effect on the proliferation of HCC cells in vitro. However, the Transwell and wound healing assays demonstrated that AS-IV inhibited the migration and invasion of HCC cells in a dose-dependent manner and the morphology of HCC cells was altered from spindle into oval shaped in the AS-IV pretreated groups. The upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of N-cadherin, vimentin, α-SMA and Slug were also observed in the AS-IV pretreated groups. Additionally, AS-IV treatment resulted in a profound decrease in the phosphorylated forms of Akt and GSK-3β, which in turn inhibited the expression of β-catenin. Thus, we conclude that AS-IV attenuates the invasive and migratory abilities of HCC cells through the inhibition of EMT by targeting the Akt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway.

The herbal compound Songyou Yin (SYY) inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma growth and improves survival in models of chronic fibrosis via paracrine inhibition of activated hepatic stellate cells

Chronic fibrosis is a major risk factor for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The pathological progression of hepatic fibrosis has been linked to cellular processes that promote tumor growth and metastasis. Several recent studies have highlighted the cross-talk between tumor cells and activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) in HCC. The herbal compound Songyou Yin (SYY) is known to attenuate hepatoma cell invasion and metastasis via down-regulation of cytokine secretion by aHSCs. However the underlying mechanism of SYY treatment in reversal of hepatic fibrosis and metastasis of liver cancers is not known. In the current study, a nude mouse model with liver fibrosis bearing orthotopic xenograft was established and we found that SYY could reduce associated fibrosis, inhibit tumor growth and improve survival. In the subcutaneous tumor model with fibrosis, we found that SYY could inhibit liver cancer. In vitro, hepatoma cells incubated with conditioned media (CM) from SYY treated aHSCs showed reduced proliferation, decrease in colony formation and invasive potential. SYY treated group showed altered gene expression, with 1205 genes up-regulated and 1323 genes down-regulated. Gene cluster analysis indicated that phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) was one of the key genes altered in the expression profiles. PI3K related markers were all significantly down-regulated. ELISA also indicated decreased secretion of cytokines which were regulated by PI3K/AKT signaling after SYY treatment in the hepatic stellate cell line, LX2. These data clearly demonstrate that SYY therapy inhibits HCC invasive and metastatic potential and improves survival in nude mice models with chronic fibrosis background via inhibition of cytokine secretion by activated hepatic stellate cells.

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal plasticity of cancer stem cells: therapeutic targets in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the most common and lethal malignancies worldwide despite the development of various therapeutic strategies. A better understanding of the mechanisms responsible for HCC initiation and progression is essential for the development of more effective therapies. The cancer stem cell (CSC) model has provided new insights into the development and progression of HCC. CSCs are specialized tumor cells that are capable of self-renewal and have long-term repopulation potential. As they are important mediators of tumor proliferation, invasion, metastasis, therapy resistance, and cancer relapse, the selective targeting of this crucial population of cells has the potential to improve HCC patient outcomes and survival. In recent years, the role of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in the advancement of HCC has gained increasing attention. This multi-step reprograming process resulting in a phenotype switch from an epithelial to a mesenchymal cellular state has been closely associated with the acquisition of stem cell-like attributes in tumors. Moreover, CSC mediates tumor metastasis by maintaining plasticity to transition between epithelial or mesenchymal states. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms of the reprograming switches that determine the progression through EMT and generation of CSC is essential for developing clinically relevant drug targets. This review provides an overview of the proposed roles of CSC in HCC and discusses recent results supporting the emerging role of EMT in facilitating hepatic CSC plasticity. In particular, we discuss how these important new insights may facilitate rational development of combining CSC- and EMT-targeted therapies in the future.

Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Chinese Herbal Compounds against Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Traditional Chinese Medicines, unique biomedical and pharmaceutical resources, have been widely used for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) prevention and treatment. Accumulated Chinese herb-derived compounds with significant anti-cancer effects against HCC have been identified. Chinese herbal compounds are effective in preventing carcinogenesis, inhibiting cell proliferation, arresting cell cycle, inducing apoptosis, autophagy, cell senescence and anoikis, inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis and angiogenesis, regulating immune function, reversing drug resistance and enhancing the effects of chemotherapy in HCC. This paper comprehensively reviews these compounds and their effects on HCC. Finally, the perspectives and rational application of herbal compounds for HCC management are discussed.

Herbal Compound Songyou Yin and Moderate Swimming Suppress Growth and Metastasis of Liver Cancer by Enhancing Immune Function

Objective. Both the Chinese herbal compound Songyou Yin (SYY) and swimming exercise have been shown to have protective effects against liver cancer in animal models. In this study, we investigated whether SYY and moderate swimming (MS) have enhanced effect on suppressing progression of liver cancer by immunomodulation. Methods. C57BL/6 mice were transplanted with Hepa1-6 murine liver cancer cell lines and received treatment with SYY alone or SYY combined with MS. The green fluorescent protein (GFP)-positive metastatic foci in lungs were imaged with a stereoscopic fluorescence microscope. Flow cytometry was used to test the proportion of CD4 +, CD8 + T cells in peripheral blood and the proportions of CD4 + CD25 + Foxp3 + Treg cells in peripheral blood, spleen, and tumor tissues. Cytokine transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 level in serum was detected by ELISA. Results. SYY plus MS significantly suppressed the growth and lung metastasis of liver cancer and prolonged survival in tumor-burdened mice. SYY plus MS markedly raised the CD4 to CD8 ratio in peripheral blood and lowered the serum TGF-β1 level and the proportions of Treg cells in peripheral blood, spleen, and tumor tissue. The effects of the combined intervention were significantly superior to SYY or MS alone. Conclusion. The combined application of SYY and MS exerted an enhanced effect on suppressing growth and metastasis of liver cancer by strengthening immunity.

Prodding the Beast: Assessing the Impact of Treatment-Induced Metastasis

The arsenal of treatments for most cancers fit broadly into the categories of surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and targeted therapy. All represent proven and successful strategies, yet each can trigger local (tumor) and systemic (host) processes that elicit unwanted, often opposing, influences on cancer growth. Under certain conditions, nearly all cancer treatments can facilitate metastatic spread, often in parallel (and sometimes in clear contrast) with tumor reducing benefits. The paradox of treatment-induced metastasis (TIM) is not new. Supporting preclinical studies span decades, but are often overlooked. With recent evidence of prometastatic effects following treatment with targeted agents blocking the tumor microenvironment, a closer inspection of this literature is warranted. The TIM phenomena may diminish the impact of effective therapies and play a critical role in eventual resistance. Alternatively, it may simply exemplify the gap between animal and human studies, and therefore have little impact for patient disease and treatment. This review will focus on the preclinical model systems used to evaluate TIM and explore the mechanisms that influence overall treatment efficacy. Understanding the role of TIM in established and emerging drug treatment strategies may help provide rationales for future drug combination approaches with antimetastatic agents to improve outcomes and reduce resistance.

The Role of TLR4 in Chemotherapy-Driven Metastasis

Tumor resistance to cytotoxic drugs is one of the main obstacles to successful cancer therapy. Emerging evidence suggests that chemoresistance is promoted by substances released from dead and damaged cells that activate the host repair program orchestrated by Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4). TLR4 is often overexpressed in malignant and tumor-infiltrating immune cells. In addition to endogenous ligands released by therapy-induced tumor destruction, TLR4 is directly activated by paclitaxel, one of the most commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs against various human cancers. TLR4 activation promotes local and systemic inflammation, leading to induction of multiple circuits that create a regenerative environment favoring local recurrence and metastasis. Of particular importance is TLR4-mediated recruitment of endothelial progenitors derived from immature myeloid cells. These cells play a major role in rebuilding tumor-associated lymphatic and blood vessels, thereby promoting lymphatic and hematogenous metastasis. The latter is further enhanced by the premetastatic niche generated by mobilization of myeloid provascular cells to distant organs. This review summarizes the recent evidence demonstrating that paclitaxel and other clinically used anticancer drugs actively induce metastasis even while shrinking the primary tumor. Better understanding of the mechanisms underlying TLR4-dependent chemotherapy-driven metastasis might be the key to overcoming challenges of cancer eradication.

Nitrogen permease regulator-like 2 enhances sensitivity to oxaliplatin in colon cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer worldwide. Chemotherapeutic compounds used for the treatment of CRC include oxaliplatin (L-OHP). While L-OHP improves CRC survival, certain patients are resistant. The nitrogen permease regulator like-2 (NPRL2) gene is a candidate tumor suppressor gene that resides in a 120-kb homozygous deletion region on chromosome 3p21.3. In the present study, it was demonstrated that NPRL2 overexpression increases the sensitivity of HCT116 cells to L-OHP. The IC50 of L-OHP was decreased in cells transduced with NPRL2 compared with negative control (NC) cells and the effect of NPRL2 on L-OHP sensitivity was time dependent. Following NPRL2 transduction in HCT116 cells, the cell cycle was arrested in the G1 phase and a partial decrease in the S phase population was observed. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that NPRL2 transduction and L-OHP treatment increased apoptosis compared with NC cells. The mechanism through which NPRL2 overexpression enhances L-OHP sensitivity involves downregulation of the functions of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin network. Furthermore, L-OHP upregulated caspase-3 and caspase-9 to promote apoptosis in NPRL2-overexpressing cells compared with cells that were transduced with NPRL2 or treated with L-OHP and NC cells (P<0.01). NPRL2 overexpression led to the downregulation of CD24, which could significantly reduce tumor invasiveness and decrease the metastatic capacity of HCT116 cells. These mechanisms are likely active in other types of cancer and may be exploited for the development of novel cancer therapies.

Maintenance of stemness in oxaliplatin-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with increased autocrine of IGF1

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that many types of cancers are composed of different cell types, including cancer stem cells (CSCs). We have previously shown that the chemotherapeutic agent oxaliplatin induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition, which is thought to be an important mechanism for generating CSCs. In the present study, we investigate whether oxaliplatin-treated cancer tissues possess characteristics of CSCs, and explore oxaliplatin resistance in these tissues.

METHODS

Hepatocellular carcinoma cells (MHCC97H cells) were subcutaneously injected into mice to form tumors, and the mice were intravenously treated with either oxaliplatin or glucose. Five weeks later, the tumors were orthotopically xenografted into livers of other mice, and these mice were treated with either oxaliplatin or glucose. Metastatic potential, sensitivity to oxaliplatin, and expression of CSC-related markers in the xenografted tumor tissues were evaluated. DNA microarrays were used to measure changes in gene expression as a result of oxaliplatin treatment. Additionally, an oxaliplatin-resistant cell line (MHCC97H-OXA) was established to assess insulin-like growth factor 1 secretion, cell invasion, cell colony formation, oxaliplatin sensitivity, and expression of CSC-related markers. The effects of an insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor inhibitor were also assessed.

RESULTS

Oxaliplatin treatment inhibited subcutaneous tumor growth. Tumors from oxaliplatin-treated mice that were subsequently xenografted into livers of other mice exhibited that decreasing sensitivity to oxaliplatin and increasing pulmonary metastatic potential. Among the expression of CSC-related proteins, the gene for insulin-like growth factor 1, was up-regulated expecially in these tumor tissues. Additionally, MHCC97H-OXA cells demonstrated that increasing cell invasion, colony formation, and expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 and CSC-related markers, whereas treatment with an inhibitor of the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor suppressed these effects.

CONCLUSION

Maintenance of stemness in oxaliplatin-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma cells is associated with increased autocrine of IGF1.

Characterization of acute and chronic neuropathies induced by oxaliplatin in mice and differential effects of a novel mitochondria-targeted antioxidant on the neuropathies

BACKGROUND

Oxaliplatin, a chemotherapeutic agent used for the treatment of colorectal cancer, induces dose-limiting neuropathy that compromises quality of life. This study aimed to reproduce, in mice, patients' symptoms of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy and to observe effects of SS-31, a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant on the neuropathy.

METHODS

Neuropathy was induced by single or repeated injections of oxaliplatin. Cold and mechanical hypersensitivities were assessed by 15°C-cold plate, temperature preference, and von Frey tests. Morphology of peripheral nerves and dorsal root ganglions, expression of spinal cord c-Fos, density of intraepidermal nerve fibers, and levels of dorsal root ganglion-reactive oxygen/nitrogen species were examined. SS-31 was administered concomitantly or after oxaliplatin injections.

RESULTS

Single injection of oxaliplatin induced cold hypersensitivity in forepaws but not in hind paws which resolved within days (maximal forepaw shakes: 28 ± 1.5 vs. 9.3 ± 1.6/150 s, mean ± SEM, P < 0.001, n = 6 per group). Oxaliplatin-administered mice disfavored 10° and 15°C plates more than control. Paw stimulation at 15°C induced c-Fos-positive cells within superficial laminae of the dorsal horn in C7-T1 segments. Weekly administrations induced gradual development of persistent mechanical allodynia in the hind paws (minimal mechanical threshold: 0.19 ± 0.08 vs. 0.93 ± 0.11 g, P < 0.001, n = 10 per group). Microscopy revealed no overt morphological changes in peripheral nerves and dorsal root ganglions. Concomitant SS-31 administration with repeated oxaliplatin administration attenuated both cold and mechanical hypersensitivity. Decrease in intraepidermal nerve fibers and increase in dorsal root ganglion-reactive oxygen/nitrogen species were also attenuated. Acute SS-31 administration after symptoms were established reversed only cold hypersensitivity.

CONCLUSION

This model of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy mimicked patients' conditions. SS-31 has potentials to prevent both acute and chronic neuropathies but is only helpful in treatment of acute neuropathy. (Anesthesiology 2014; 120:459-73).

Insufficient radiofrequency ablation promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition of hepatocellular carcinoma cells through Akt and ERK signaling pathways

Background

Residual tumor progression after insufficient radiofrequency ablation (RFA) has been recently reported. However, whether epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is a key process that drives cancer metastasis, is involved in the tumor progression after insufficient RFA is not well understood.

Methods

Human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines SMMC7721 and Huh7 were used. Insufficient RFA was simulated using a water bath (47°C 5 min, 10 min, 15 min, 20 min and 25 min gradually). MTT assay was used to evaluate the proliferation of HCC cells in vitro. Migration and invasion of HCC cells were determined by transwell assay. The molecular changes in HCC cells after insufficient RFA were evaluated by western blot. LY294002 and PD98059 were used to treat HCC cells. An ectopic nude mice model and a tail vein metastatic assay were used to evaluate the growth and metastatic potential of SMMC7721 cells in vivo after insufficient RFA.

Results

SMMC7721 and Huh7 cells after insufficient RFA (named as SMMC7721-H and Huh7-H respectively) exhibited enhanced proliferation, migration and invasion (6.4% and 23.6%, 33.2% and 66.1%, and 44.1% and 57.4% increase respectively) in vitro. Molecular changes of EMT were observed in SMMC7721-H and Huh7-H cells. LY294002 and PD98059 inhibited the EMT of SMMC7721-H and Huh7-H cells. SMMC7721-H cells also exhibited larger tumor size (1440.8 ± 250.3 mm³ versus 1048.56 ± 227.6 mm³) and more lung metastasis (97.4% increase) than SMMC7721 cells in vivo. Higher expression of PCNA, N-cadherin and MMP-2 and MMP-9, was also observed in SMMC7721-H tumors.

Conclusions

Insufficient RFA could directly promote the invasiveness and metastasis of HCC cells. Insufficient RFA may promote the EMT of HCC cells through Akt and ERK signaling pathways.

Treatment with the vascular disruptive agent OXi4503 induces an immediate and widespread epithelial to mesenchymal transition in the surviving tumor

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is considered an important mechanism in tumor resistance to drug treatments; however, in vivo observation of this process has been limited. In this study we demonstrated an immediate and widespread EMT involving all surviving tumor cells following treatment of a mouse model of colorectal liver metastases with the vascular disruptive agent OXi4503. EMT was characterized by significant downregulation of E-cadherin, relocation and nuclear accumulation of β-catenin as well as significant upregulation of ZEB1 and vimentin. Concomitantly, significant temporal upregulation in hypoxia and the pro-angiogenic growth factors hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha, hepatocyte growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta were seen within the surviving tumor. The process of EMT was transient and by 5 days after treatment tumor cell reversion to epithelial morphology was evident. This reversal, termed mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) is a process implicated in the development of new metastases but has not been observed in vivo histologically. Similar EMT changes were observed in response to other antitumor treatments including chemotherapy, thermal ablation, and antiangiogenic treatments in our mouse colorectal metastasis model and in a murine orthotopic breast cancer model after OXi4503 treatment. These results suggest that EMT may be an early mechanism adopted by tumors in response to injury and hypoxic stress, such that inhibition of EMT in combination with other therapies could play a significant role in future cancer therapy.

Suppression of actopaxin impairs hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis through modulation of cell migration and invasion

Early reports suggested that actopaxin, a member of the focal adhesion proteins, regulates cell migration. Here we investigated whether actopaxin is involved in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression and metastasis. We examined actopaxin expression in human HCC samples using immunohistochemistry and western blotting. The functional and molecular effect of actopaxin was studied in vitro by overexpression in a nonmetastatic HCC cell line, as well as repression in a metastatic cell line. The in vivo effect of actopaxin repression was studied in nonobese diabetic and severe combined immunodeficient mice. We found that actopaxin was frequently overexpressed in human HCC patients and its overexpression positively correlated with tumor size, stage, and metastasis. Actopaxin expression also correlated with the metastatic potential of HCC cell lines. Actopaxin overexpression induced the invasion and migration ability of nonmetastatic HCC cells, whereas down-regulation of actopaxin reverted the invasive phenotypes and metastatic potential of metastatic HCC cells through regulating the protein expression of certain focal adhesion proteins including ILK, PINCH, paxillin, and cdc42, as well as regulating the epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway. Furthermore, there was a close association between actopaxin and CD29. HCC cells with stronger CD29 expression showed a higher actopaxin level, whereas actopaxin repression attenuated CD29 activity. Finally, actopaxin down-regulation enhanced the chemosensitivity of HCC cells towards oxaliplatin treatment by way of a collective result of suppression of survivin protein, β-catenin, and mammalian target of rapamycin pathways and up-regulation of p53.

CONCLUSION

This study provides concrete evidence of a significant role of actopaxin in HCC progression and metastasis, by way of regulation of cell invasiveness and motility, an epithelial-mesenchymal transition process, and chemosensitivity to cytotoxic drugs.

Targeting cancer-related inflammation: Chinese herbal medicine inhibits epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is an almost universally fatal disease resulting from early invasion of adjacent structures and metastasis and the lack of an effective treatment modality. Our previous studies have shown that Qingyihuaji Formula (QYHJ), a seven-herb Chinese medicine formula, had significant anti-cancer effects in pancreatic cancer. Here, we examined the effects of QYHJ on pancreatic cancer cell invasion and metastasis and the potential associated mechanism(s). We found that QYHJ inhibited both tumor growth and metastasis in nude mice with human pancreatic cancer cell xenografts. Further study indicated that QYHJ inhibited epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is characterized by increased E-cadherin expression and decreased vimentin, N-cadherin and Slug expression. Interleukin 6 (IL-6), a pro-inflammatory cytokine produced mainly by macrophages, could promote cancer cell EMT and invasion. In contrast, treatment with QYHJ inhibited cancer-related inflammation in tumors by decreasing infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages and IL-6 production, thus preventing cell invasion and metastasis. These results suggested that the Chinese herbal medicine QYHJ could inhibit pancreatic cancer cell invasion and metastasis in part by reversing tumor-supporting inflammation.

Bufalin, a component in Chansu, inhibits proliferation and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common and aggressive cancer, and the treatment options are limited for patients with advanced HCC. Bufalin, the major digoxin-like component of the traditional Chinese medicine Chansu, exhibits significant anti-tumor activities in many tumor cell lines. In the present study, we investigated the effect of bufalin on the inhibition of an AKT-related signaling pathway, and examined the relationship between regulatory proteins and anti-tumor effects in hepatoma cells.

Methods

Proliferation, wound healing, transwell-migration/invasion and adhesion assays were performed in HCCLM3 and HepG2 cell lines. The protein levels of pAKT, AKT, pGSK3β, GSK3β, pβ-catenin, β-catenin, E-cadherin, MMP-9, and MMP-2 were measured by western blot analysis. E-Cadherin and β-catenin expression levels were also evaluated by immunofluorescence.

Results

Bufalin inhibited hepatoma cell proliferation, migration, invasion and adhesion. In addition, treatment with bufalin significantly decreased the levels of pAKT, pGSK3β, MMP-9, and MMP-2, while increasing the levels of GSK3β and E-cadherin and suppressing the nuclear translocation of β-catenin.

Conclusions

Bufalin is a potential anti-HCC therapeutic candidate through its inhibition of the AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin/E-cadherin signaling pathway. Further studies with bufalin are warranted in patients with HCC, especially those with the disease at advanced stages.

Traditional herbal medicine: a review of potential of inhibitory hepatocellular carcinoma in basic research and clinical trial

Although significantly develops in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), features of HCC remain an aggressive cancer with a dismal outcome. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), specifically Chinese herbal medicine (CHM), is one of the most popular complementary and alternative medicine modalities worldwide. The use of heat-clearing and detoxicating (Chinese named qingre jiedu) CHM has attracted great attention as an alternative antitumor including HCC considering its low toxicity and high activity. Together these reports indicate that CHM is a promising anti-HCC herbal remedy in basic research. For patients with advanced HCC, CHM including formula and single combined with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization or chemotherapy is able to decrease tumor growth and the side effect of toxicity and improve overall survival, quality of life, and immune function. Due to its abundance, low cost, and safety in consumption, CHM remains a species with tremendous potential for further investigation in HCC.

Herbal compound "Songyou Yin" attenuates hepatoma cell invasiveness and metastasis through downregulation of cytokines secreted by activated hepatic stellate cells

Background

Activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) play an important role in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we determined if cytokines secreted in response to the herbal compound “Songyou Yin” (SYY) treatment of aHSCs could influence invasiveness and metastatic capabilities of hepatoma cells.

Methods

Primary rat hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) were isolated, activated, divided into SYY treated and untreated (nSYY) groups, and conditioned media (CM-SYY and CM-nSYY, respectively) were collected. The hepatoma cell line, McA-RH7777 was cultured for 4 weeks with SYY, CM-SYY, and CM-nSYY, designated McA-SYY, McA-SYYCM and McA-nSYYCM. The invasiveness and metastatic capabilities were evaluated using Matrigel invasion assay in vitro and pulmonary metastasis in vivo. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), MMP-9, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and vimentin protein levels in McA-SYYCM and McA-nSYYCM were evaluated by Western blot. Cytokine levels in conditioned media were tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

Matrigel invasion assay indicated that the number of McA-SYYCM cells passing through the basement membrane was less than in McA-nSYYCM cells (P < 0.01). Similar results were also observed in vivo for lung metastasis. McA-SYYCM cells showed less pulmonary metastasis capabilities than McA-nSYYCM cells (P < 0.001). The reduced expression of MMP-2 and reversed epithelial to mesenchymal transition with E-cadherin upregulation, and N-cadherin and vimentin downregulation were also found in McA-SYYCM compared to McA-nSYYCM. Metastasis-promoting cytokines hepatocyte growth factor, interleukin-6, transforming growth factor-β1, and vascular endothelial growth factor were markedly decreased in CM-SYY compared to CM-nSYY.

Conclusions

SYY attenuates hepatoma cell invasiveness and metastasis capabilities through downregulating cytokines secreted by activated hepatic stellate cells.

JNK signaling maintains the mesenchymal properties of multi-drug resistant human epidermoid carcinoma KB cells through snail and twist1

BACKGROUND AND METHODS

In addition to possess cross drug resistance characteristic, emerging evidences have shown that multiple-drug resistance (MDR) cancer cells exhibit aberrant metastatic capacity when compared to parental cells. In this study, we explored the contribution of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) signaling to the mesenchymal phenotypes and the aberrant motile capacity of MDR cells utilizing a well characterized MDR cell line KB/VCR, which is established from KB human epidermoid carcinoma cells by vincristine (VCR), and its parental cell line KB.

RESULTS

Taking advantage of experimental strategies including pharmacological tool and gene knockdown, we showed here that interference with JNK signaling pathway by targeting JNK1/2 or c-Jun reversed the mesenchymal properties of KB/VCR cells to epithelial phenotypes and suppressed the motile capacity of KB/VCR cells, such as migration and invasion. These observations support a critical role of JNK signaling in maintaining the mesenchymal properties of KB/VCR cells. Furthermore, we observed that JNK signaling may control the expression of both snail and twist1 in KB/VCR cells, indicating that both snail and twist1 are involved in controlling the mesenchymal characteristics of KB/VCR cells by JNK signaling.

CONCLUSION

JNK signaling is required for maintaining the mesenchymal phenotype of KB/VCR cells; and JNK signaling may maintain the mesenchymal characteristics of KB/VCR cells potentially through snail and twist1.

Herbal Compound "Songyou Yin" Renders Hepatocellular Carcinoma Sensitive to Oxaliplatin through Inhibition of Stemness

We investigated the effect of Chinese herbal compound Song-you Yin on HCC stemness. MHCC97H and Hep3B cell lines were pretreated with SYY for 4 weeks, and their chemosensitivity to oxaliplatin was evaluated. The expression of CSC-related markers, cell invasion and migration, and colony formation were also examined. SYY-treated orthotopic nude mouse models of human HCC were developed to explore the effect of oxaliplatin on tumor growth, metastasis, and survival. The CSC-related molecular changes in vivo were also evaluated. The result showed that MHCC97H and Hep3B cells pretreated with SYY showed significantly increased chemosensitivity to oxaliplatin and the downregulation of CSC-related markers CD90, CD24, and EPCAM. SYY also attenuated cell motility, invasion, and colony formation in MHCC97H and Hep3B cell lines. The reduced tumorigenicity and pulmonary metastasis were observed in SYY-pretreated cell lines. Combination treatment with oxaliplatin and SYY significantly reduced tumor volume and pulmonary metastasis and prolonged survival compared with oxaliplatin treatment alone. Immunohistochemical analysis showed reduced expression of CD90, ABCG2, ALDH, CD44, EPCAM, vimentin, and MMP-9 and increased the expression of E-cadherin, in HCC cells following combination treatment. These data clearly demonstrate that SYY renders hepatocellular carcinoma sensitive to oxaliplatin through the inhibition of stemness.

IKKα activation of NOTCH links tumorigenesis via FOXA2 suppression

Proinflammatory cytokine TNFα plays critical roles in promoting malignant cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and tumor metastasis in many cancers. However, the mechanism of TNFα-mediated tumor development remains unclear. Here, we show that IKKα, an important downstream kinase of TNFα, interacts with and phosphorylates FOXA2 at S107/S111, thereby suppressing FOXA2 transactivation activity and leading to decreased NUMB expression, and further activates the downstream NOTCH pathway and promotes cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. Moreover, we found that levels of IKKα, pFOXA2 (S107/111), and activated NOTCH1 were significantly higher in hepatocellular carcinoma tumors than in normal liver tissues and that pFOXA2 (S107/111) expression was positively correlated with IKKα and activated NOTCH1 expression in tumor tissues. Therefore, dysregulation of NUMB-mediated suppression of NOTCH1 by TNFα/IKKα-associated FOXA2 inhibition likely contributes to inflammation-mediated cancer pathogenesis. Here, we report a TNFα/IKKα/FOXA2/NUMB/NOTCH1 pathway that is critical for inflammation-mediated tumorigenesis and may provide a target for clinical intervention in human cancer.

Autophagy activation in hepatocellular carcinoma contributes to the tolerance of oxaliplatin via reactive oxygen species modulation

PURPOSE

Understanding the roles of mammalian autophagy in cancer highlights recent advances in the pharmacologic manipulation of autophagic pathways as a therapeutic strategy for cancer. However, autophagy status and corresponding functions in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after therapeutic stress remain to be clarified. This study was to determine whether the autophagic machinery could be activated after chemotherapy and the contribution of autophagy to tolerance of oxaliplatin in HCC.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Autophagy activation and cell death induced by oxaliplatin were examined in two HCC cell lines as well as in vivo using an HCC model in nude mice. HCC tissue samples with or without locoregional chemotherapy before surgery were also examined by immunohistochemical and electron microscopic analysis.

RESULTS

Autophagy was functionally activated in HCC cell lines and xenografts after oxaliplatin treatment. Suppression of autophagy using either pharmacologic inhibitors or RNA interference of essential autophagy gene enhanced cell death induced by oxaliplatin in HCC cells. Generation of reactive oxygen species has an important role in the induction of cell death by oxaliplatin in combination with autophagy inhibitors. Critically, the combination of oxaliplatin with autophagy inhibitor chloroquine resulted in a more pronounced tumor suppression in HCC xenografts. Furthermore, autophagy-specific protein LC3 and autophagic autophagosome formation were induced to a significantly higher level in HCC specimens that had been subjected to locoregional chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Autophagy activation under therapy stress contributes to HCC tumor cell survival. Targeting the autophagy pathway is a promising therapeutic strategy to enhance the effects of chemotherapy and improve clinical outcomes in HCC patients.

Isomalto oligosaccharide sulfate inhibits tumor growth and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma in nude mice

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) usually has a dismal prognosis because of its limited response to current pharmacotherapy and high metastatic rate. Sulfated oligosaccharide has been confirmed as having potent antitumor activities against solid tumors. Here, we explored the preclinical effects and molecular mechanisms of isomalto oligosaccharide sulfate (IMOS), another novel sulfated oligosaccharide, in HCC cell lines and a xenograft model.

Methods

The effects of IMOS on HCC proliferation, apoptosis, adhesion, migration, and invasiveness in vitro were assessed by cell counting, flow cytometry, adhesion, wound healing, and transwell assays, respectively. The roles of IMOS on HCC growth and metastasis in xenograft models were evaluated by tumor volumes and fluorescent signals. Total and phosphorylated protein levels of AKT, ERK, and JNK as well as total levels of c-MET were detected by Western blotting. IMOS-regulated genes were screened by quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) array in HCCLM3-red fluorescent protein (RFP) xenograft tissues and then confirmed by qRT-PCR in HepG2 and Hep3B cells.

Results

IMOS markedly inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis of HCCLM3, HepG2, and Bel-7402 cells and also significantly suppressed cell adhesion, migration, and invasion of HCCLM3 in vitro. At doses of 60 and 90 mg/kg/d, IMOS displayed robust inhibitory effects on HCC growth and metastasis without obvious side effects in vivo. The levels of pERK, tERK, and pJNK as well as c-MET were significantly down-regulated after treatment with 16 mg/mL IMOS. No obvious changes were found in the levels of pAkt, tAkt, and tJNK. Ten differentially expressed genes were screened from HCCLM3-RFP xenograft tissues after treatment with IMOS at a dose of 90 mg/kg/d. Similar gene expression profiles were confirmed in HepG2 and Hep3B cells after treatment with 16 mg/mL IMOS.

Conclusions

IMOS is a potential anti-HCC candidate through inhibition of ERK and JNK signaling independent of p53 and worth studying further in patients with HCC, especially at advanced stages.