1
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Fan CW, Li MS, Song XX, Luo L, Jiang JC, Luo JZ, Wang HS. Discovery of novel 2-oximino-2-indolylacetamide derivatives as potent anticancer agents capable of inducing cell autophagy and ferroptosis. Bioorg Med Chem 2023; 80:117176. [PMID: 36709571 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2023.117176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
A series of 2-oximino-2-indolylacetamide derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their antitumour effects. Among them, 4d exhibited the most potent antiproliferative effect in vitro on the tested human cancer cells. Additionally, 4d significantly induced cell apoptosis, caused mitochondrial dysfunction, promoted Bax, cleaved-PARP and p53 expression and inhibited Bcl-2 expression in 5-8F cells. Moreover, 4d remarkably promoted autophagosome formation, leading to cell apoptosis. Further investigation indicated that 4d could trigger cell death through cell ferroptosis, including increased ROS generation and lipid peroxidation and decreased glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) expression and glutathione (GSH) levels. More importantly, 4d induced 5-8F cell death by activating ROS/MAPK and inhibiting the AKT/mTOR and STAT3 signalling pathways. Interestingly, 4d significantly suppressed tumour growth in a 5-8F cell xenograft model without obvious toxicity to mice. Overall, these results demonstrate that 4d may be a potential compound for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Wen Fan
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China; Scientific Experiment Center, Guilin Medical University, Guilin 541199, China
| | - Mei-Shan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Xi-Xi Song
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Li Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Jing-Chen Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Jia-Zi Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Heng-Shan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Collaborative Innovation Center for Guangxi Ethnic Medicine, School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
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2
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Oxone-Promoted Synthesis of Bis(indolyl)methanes from Arylmethylamines and Indoles. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.133502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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3
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Kadu VD, Gund MS, Godage AS. A Sustainable Iodine Catalyzed C(sp
3
)‐
H
Bond Functionalization of Benzylamines towards Synthesis of Bis(indolyl)methanes and Tris(indolyl)methanes. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202102628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vikas D. Kadu
- School of Chemical Sciences Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur 413255 Maharashtra India
| | - Maruti S. Gund
- School of Chemical Sciences Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur 413255 Maharashtra India
| | - Amar S. Godage
- School of Chemical Sciences Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur 413255 Maharashtra India
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4
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Chiu LY, Hsin IL, Tsai JN, Chen CJ, Ou CC, Wu WJ, Sheu GT, Ko JL. Combination treatment of Src inhibitor Saracatinib with GMI, a Ganoderma microsporum immunomodulatory protein, induce synthetic lethality via autophagy and apoptosis in lung cancer cells. J Cell Physiol 2020; 236:1148-1157. [PMID: 32686156 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Saracatinib is an oral Src-kinase inhibitor and has been studied in preclinical models and clinical trials of cancer therapy. GMI, a fungal immunomodulatory protein from Ganoderma microsporum, possesses antitumor capacity. The aim of this study is to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of combination treatment with saracatinib and GMI on parental and pemetrexed-resistant lung cancer cells. Cotreatment with saracatinib and GMI induced synergistic and additive cytotoxic effect in A549 and A400 cells by annexin V/propidium iodide assay and combination index. Using western blot assay, saracatinib, and GMI combined treatment synergistically induced caspase-7 activation in A549 cells. Different from A549 cells, saracatinib and GMI cotreatment markedly increased LC3B-II in A400 cells. ATG5 silencing abolished the caspase-7 activation and reduced cell death in A549 cells after cotreatment. This is the first study to provide a novel strategy of treating lung cancer with or without drug resistance via combination treatment with GMI and saracatinib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Yen Chiu
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Exercise Health Science, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - I-Lun Hsin
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Ning Tsai
- Department of Medical Laboratory and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Clinical Laboratory, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Jung Chen
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chu-Chyn Ou
- School of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Jun Wu
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Gwo-Tarng Sheu
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jiunn-Liang Ko
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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5
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Kadu VD, Chandrudu SN, Hublikar MG, Raut DG, Bhosale RB. Metal-free oxidative coupling of arylmethylamines with indoles: a simple, environmentally benign approach for the synthesis of 3,3'-bis(indolyl)methanes. RSC Adv 2020; 10:23254-23262. [PMID: 35520337 PMCID: PMC9054727 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra03221b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficient metal-free oxidative coupling of arylmethylamines with indoles has been developed using molecular oxygen as a green oxidant. The present reaction provides a novel route towards the synthesis of 3,3'-bis(indolyl)methanes in excellent yields of up to 95% via C-C and C-N bond formation. This attractive and environmentally friendly one-pot protocol is a simple procedure that features inexpensive acetic acid as the catalyst and molecular oxygen as the sole oxidant, and it supports a wide substrate scope with the good tolerance of functional groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas D Kadu
- School of Chemical Sciences, Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur-413255 Maharashtra India
| | - Sankala Naga Chandrudu
- Department of Chemistry, College of Engineering, Rayalseema University Kurnool-518002 Andhra Pradesh India
| | - Mahesh G Hublikar
- School of Chemical Sciences, Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur-413255 Maharashtra India
| | - Dattatraya G Raut
- School of Chemical Sciences, Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur-413255 Maharashtra India
| | - Raghunath B Bhosale
- School of Chemical Sciences, Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar Solapur University Solapur-413255 Maharashtra India
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6
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Han CC, Wan FS. New Insights into the Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Breast Cancer Metastasis. J Breast Cancer 2018; 21:354-362. [PMID: 30607156 PMCID: PMC6310719 DOI: 10.4048/jbc.2018.21.e51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular stress severely disrupts endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function, leading to the abnormal accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER and subsequent development of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). To accommodate the occurrence of ERS, cells have evolved a highly conserved, self-protecting signal transduction pathway called the unfolded protein response. Notably, ERS signaling is involved in the development of a variety of diseases and is closely related to tumor development, particularly in breast cancer. This review discusses recent research regarding associations between ERS and tumor metastasis. The information presented here will help researchers elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying ERS-mediated tumor metastasis and provide new directions for tumor therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Chang Han
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Center of Prenatal Diagnosis, Suqian First Hospital, Suqian, China
| | - Fu-Sheng Wan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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7
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Godugu C, Doddapaneni R, Safe SH, Singh M. Novel diindolylmethane derivatives based NLC formulations to improve the oral bioavailability and anticancer effects in triple negative breast cancer. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2016; 108:168-179. [PMID: 27586082 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The present study demonstrates the promising anticancer effects of novel C-substituted diindolylmethane (DIM) derivatives DIM-10 and DIM-14 in aggressive TNBC models. In vitro studies demonstrated that these compounds possess strong anticancer effects. Caco-2 permeability studies resulted in poor permeability and poor oral bioavailability was demonstrated by pharmacokinetic studies. Nano structured lipid carrier (NLC) formulations were prepared to increase the clinical acceptance of these compounds. Significant increase in oral bioavailability was observed with NLC formulations. Compared to DIM-10, DIM-10 NLC formulation showed increase in Cmax and AUC values by 4.73 and 11.19-folds, respectively. Similar pattern of increase was observed with DIM-14 NLC formulations. In dogs DIM-10 NLC formulations showed an increase of 2.65 and 2.94-fold in Cmax and AUC, respectively. The anticancer studies in MDA-MB-231 orthotopic TNBC models demonstrated significant reduction in tumor volumes in DIM-10 and DIM-14 NLC treated animals. Our studies suggest that NLC formulation of both DIM-10 and 14 is effective in TNBC models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandraiah Godugu
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA; Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana 500037, India
| | - Ravi Doddapaneni
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Stephen H Safe
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Mandip Singh
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.
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8
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Robinson E, Leung E, Matuszek AM, Krogsgaard-Larsen N, Furkert DP, Brimble MA, Richardson A, Reynisson J. Virtual screening for novel Atg5–Atg16 complex inhibitors for autophagy modulation. MEDCHEMCOMM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4md00420e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Compounds 14 and 62 were identified using virtual screening to inhibit autophagy. The expression levels of the LC3-II and p62 autophagy proteins were used. SAR analysis revealed another active compound 38. Formation of autophagosomes was severely reduced upon dosing of 14, 38 and 62.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Robinson
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine
- Keele University
- Guy Hilton Research Centre
- Stoke-on-Trent
- UK
| | - Euphemia Leung
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre
- University of Auckland
- New Zealand
| | - Anna M. Matuszek
- School of Chemical Sciences
- University of Auckland
- Auckland 1142
- New Zealand
| | | | - Daniel P. Furkert
- School of Chemical Sciences
- University of Auckland
- Auckland 1142
- New Zealand
| | | | - Alan Richardson
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine
- Keele University
- Guy Hilton Research Centre
- Stoke-on-Trent
- UK
| | - Jóhannes Reynisson
- School of Chemical Sciences
- University of Auckland
- Auckland 1142
- New Zealand
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9
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Priebbenow DL, Zou LH, Becker P, Bolm C. The Disubstitution of Acetals to Prepare δ,δ-Bis(aryl) β-Keto Esters. European J Org Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201300446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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10
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Shi JM, Bai LL, Zhang DM, Yiu A, Yin ZQ, Han WL, Liu JS, Li Y, Fu DY, Ye WC. Saxifragifolin D induces the interplay between apoptosis and autophagy in breast cancer cells through ROS-dependent endoplasmic reticulum stress. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 85:913-26. [PMID: 23348250 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among females, and novel chemotherapeutic drugs for treating breast cancer are needed urgently. Saxifragifolin D (SD) was isolated by our group from Androsace umbellata which is commonly used to treat solid tumor. In this study, we evaluated its growth inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells and explored the underlying molecular mechanisms. Our results showed that SD inhibited the growth of both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells significantly. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that SD induced apoptosis through mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Evidence of SD-induced autophagy included the occurrence of autophagic vacuoles, up-regulation of LC3-II, Beclin1 and Vps34. Inhibition of autophagy by bafilomycin A1 or Beclin1 siRNA pretreatment decreased the ratio of apoptosis, indicating that autophagy induction contributes to apoptosis and is required for the latter. SD was also found to induce endoplasmic reticulum stress, accompanied by ROS production, increase of intracellular calcium and up-regulation of Bip, IRE1α and XBP-1s. Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress by N-acetyl-l-cysteine, tauroursodeoxycholic acid or IRE1α siRNA pretreatment could suppress both apoptosis and autophagy. Besides, increases in CHOP, calnexin, calpain, p-JNK and p-Bcl-2 were followed by subsequent dissociation of Beclin1 from Bcl-2, further suggesting endoplasmic reticulum stress to be the common signaling pathway shared by SD-induced apoptosis and autophagy. In conclusion, SD inhibits breast cancer cell growth and induces interplay between apoptosis and autophagy through ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress. It will provide molecular bases for developing SD into a drug candidate for the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Min Shi
- College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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11
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Gundara JS, Zhao J, Robinson BG, Sidhu SB. Oncophagy: harnessing regulation of autophagy in cancer therapy. Endocr Relat Cancer 2012; 19:R281-95. [PMID: 23082009 DOI: 10.1530/erc-12-0325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is an increasingly well-characterised process of cell component auto-digestion and recycling thought necessary for cellular subsistence. As we gain a more thorough understanding of the mechanisms underlying autophagy, its relevance to human disease and therapeutic potential are being clarified. This review summarises the evidence implicating autophagy in the pathogenesis and potential treatment of malignant disease. In addition, we explore the molecular role of microRNAs as key regulators in what we propose should now become known as 'oncophagy'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin S Gundara
- Cancer Genetics, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Pacific Highway, St Leonards, Sydney, New South Wales 2065, Australia
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12
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Polotskaia A, Hoffman S, Krett NL, Shanmugam M, Rosen ST, Bargonetti J. 8-Amino-adenosine activates p53-independent cell death of metastatic breast cancers. Mol Cancer Ther 2012; 11:2495-504. [PMID: 22973058 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-12-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
8-Amino-adenosine (8-NH(2)-Ado) is a ribose sugar nucleoside analogue that reduces cellular ATP levels and inhibits mRNA synthesis. Estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) metastatic breast cancers often contain mutant p53; therefore, we asked if 8-NH(2)-Ado could kill breast cancer cells without activating the p53-pathway. Regardless of the breast cancer subtype tested or the p53 status of the cells, 8-NH(2)-Ado was more cytotoxic than either gemcitabine or etoposide. 8-NH(2)-Ado treatment inhibited cell proliferation, activated cell death, and did not activate transcription of the p53 target gene p21 or increase protein levels of either p53 or p21. This occurred in the estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) MCF-7 cells that express wild-type p53, the ER+ T47-D cells that express mutant p53, and the ER- MDA-MB-468 cells or MDA-MB-231 cells that both express mutant p53. 8-NH(2)-Ado induced apoptotic death of MCF-7 cells and apoptosis was not inhibited by knockdown of functional p53. Moreover, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD blocked the 8-NH(2)-Ado-induced MCF-7 cell death. Interestingly, 8-NH(2)-Ado caused the MDA-MB-231 cells to detach from the plate with only limited evidence of apoptotic cell death markers and the cell death was not inhibited by Z-VAD. Inhibition of MDA-MB-231 cell autophagy, by reduction of ATG7 or 3-methyladenine treatment, did not block this 8-NH(2)-Ado-mediated cytotoxicity. Importantly 8-NH(2)-Ado was highly cytotoxic to triple-negative breast cancer cells and worked through a pathway that did not require wild-type p53 for cytoxicity. Therefore, 8-NH(2)-Ado should be considered for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancers that are chemotherapy resistant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla Polotskaia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, CUNY, 695 Park Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA
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13
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Abstract
Autophagy is an intracellular lysosome-dependent catabolic process that is indispensable for maintaining cellular homeostasis through the turnover and elimination of defective or redundant proteins and damaged or aged organelles. Recent studies suggest that autophagy may be closely associated with tumorigenesis and the response of tumor cells to chemotherapeutic drugs. This article reviews recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of autophagy and the role of autophagy in oncogenesis and anticancer therapy. It is paradoxical that autophagy acts as a mechanism for tumor suppression and contributes to the survival of tumors. In addition, whether autophagy in response to chemotherapies results in cell death or instead protects cancer cells from death is complicated, depending on the nature of the cancer and the drug.
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14
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Cook KL, Shajahan AN, Clarke R. Autophagy and endocrine resistance in breast cancer. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2012; 11:1283-94. [PMID: 21916582 DOI: 10.1586/era.11.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The American Cancer Society estimates that over 200,000 new breast cancer cases are diagnosed annually in the USA alone. Of these cases, the majority are invasive breast cancers and almost 70% are estrogen receptor-α positive. Therapies targeting the estrogen receptor-α are widely applied and include selective estrogen receptor modulators such as tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor downregulator such as Fulvestrant (Faslodex; FAS, ICI 182,780), or one of the third-generation aromatase inhibitors including letrozole or anastrozole. While these treatments reduce breast cancer mortality, many estrogen receptor-α-positive tumors eventually recur, highlighting the clinical significance of endocrine therapy resistance. The signaling leading to endocrine therapy resistance is poorly understood; however, preclinical studies have established an important role for autophagy in the acquired resistance phenotype. Autophagy is a cellular degradation process initiated in response to stress or nutrient deprivation, which attempts to restore metabolic homeostasis through the catabolic lysis of aggregated proteins, unfolded/misfolded proteins or damaged subcellular organelles. The duality of autophagy, which can be either pro-survival or pro-death, is well known. However, in the context of endocrine therapy resistance in breast cancer, the inhibition of autophagy can potentiate resensitization of previously antiestrogen resistant breast cancer cells. In this article, we discuss the complex and occasionally contradictory roles of autophagy in cancer and in resistance to endocrine therapies in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Cook
- Department of Oncology and Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center W405A Research Building, Georgetown University Medical Center, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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