Effect of cough technique and cryogen gas on temperatures achieved during simulated cryotherapy

Infrastructure requirements for human papillomavirus vaccination and cervical cancer screening in sub-Saharan Africa

The availability of both human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination and alternative screening tests has greatly improved the prospects of cervical cancer prevention in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. The inclusion of HPV vaccine in the portfolio of new vaccines offered by the Gobal Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) to GAVI-eligible countries has vastly improved the chances of introducing HPV vaccination. Further investments to improve vaccine storage, distribution and delivery infrastructure and human resources of the Extended Programme of Immunization will substantially contribute to the faster introduction of HPV vaccination in SSA countries through both school- and campaign-based approaches. Alternative methods to cytology for the prevention of cervical cancer through the early detection and treatment of cervical cancer precursors have been extensively evaluated in the past 15 years, in Africa as well as in other low-resource settings. Visual inspection with 3-5% dilute acetic acid (VIA) and HPV testing are the two alternative screening methods that have been most studied, in both cross-sectional and randomised clinical trials. VIA is particularly suitable to low-resource settings; however, its efficacy in reducing cervical cancer is likely to be significantly lower than HPV testing. The introduction of VIA screening programmes will help develop the infrastructure that will, in turn, facilitate the introduction of affordable HPV testing in future. Links with the existing HIV/AIDS control programmes is another strategy to improve the infrastructure and screening services in SSA. Infrastructural requirements for an integrated approach aiming to vaccinate single-year cohorts of girls in the 9-13 years age-range and to screen women over 30 years of age using VIA or affordable rapid HPV tests are outlined in this manuscript. This article forms part of a regional report entitled "Comprehensive Control of HPV Infections and Related Diseases in the Sub-Saharan Africa Region" Vaccine Volume 31, Supplement 5, 2013. Updates of the progress in the field are presented in a separate monograph entitled "Comprehensive Control of HPV Infections and Related Diseases" Vaccine Volume 30, Supplement 5, 2012.

Human papillomavirus infection and the primary and secondary prevention of cervical cancer

A wealth of evidence has led to the conclusion that virtually all cases of cervical cancer are attributable to persistent infection by a subset of human papillomavirus (HPV) types, especially HPV type 16 (HPV-16) and HPV-18. These HPV types also cause a proportion of other cancers, including vulvar, vaginal, anal, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. Although cervical cancer screening, primarily with the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, has reduced the incidence of this cancer in industrialized countries, cervical cancer remains the second most common cause of death from cancer in women worldwide, because the developing world has lacked the resources for widespread, high-quality screening. In addition to advances in Pap smear technology, the identification of HPV as the etiologic agent has produced 2 recent advances that may have a major impact on approaches to reduce the incidence of this disease. The first is the development of a preventive vaccine, the current versions of which appear to prevent close to 100% of persistent genital infection and disease caused by HPV-16 and HPV-18; future second-generation vaccines may be able to protect against oncogenic infections by a broader array of HPV types. The second is the incorporation of HPV testing into screening programs. In women aged >30 years, HPV testing can identify high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia earlier than Pap smears with acceptable rates of specificity. These results, together with the high sensitivity of HPV testing, suggest that such testing could permit increased intervals for screening. An inexpensive HPV test in development, if successful, may be incorporated as part of an economically viable 'screen-and-treat' approach in the developing world. The manner in which vaccination and screening programs are integrated will need to be considered carefully so that they are efficient in reducing the overall incidence of cervical cancer.