Knock-down of Kaiso induces proliferation and blocks granulocytic differentiation in blast crisis of chronic myeloid leukemia

Emerging role of MYB transcription factors in cancer drug resistance

Decades ago, the viral myeloblastosis oncogene v-myb was identified as a gene responsible for the development of avian leukemia. However, the relevance of MYB proteins for human cancer diseases, in particular for solid tumors, remained basically unrecognized for a very long time. The human family of MYB transcription factors comprises MYB (c-MYB), MYBL2 (b-MYB), and MYBL1 (a-MYB), which are overexpressed in several cancers and are associated with cancer progression and resistance to anticancer drugs. In addition to overexpression, the presence of activated MYB-fusion proteins as tumor drivers was described in certain cancers. The identification of anticancer drug resistance mediated by MYB proteins and their underlying mechanisms are of great importance in understanding failures of current therapies and establishing new and more efficient therapy regimens. In addition, new drug candidates targeting MYB transcription factor activity and signaling have emerged as a promising class of potential anticancer therapeutics that could tackle MYB-dependent drug-resistant cancers in a more selective way. This review describes the correlation of MYB transcription factors with the formation and persistence of cancer resistance to various approved and investigational anticancer drugs.

Epigenetic regulation in hematopoiesis and its implications in the targeted therapy of hematologic malignancies

Hematologic malignancies are one of the most common cancers, and the incidence has been rising in recent decades. The clinical and molecular features of hematologic malignancies are highly heterogenous, and some hematologic malignancies are incurable, challenging the treatment, and prognosis of the patients. However, hematopoiesis and oncogenesis of hematologic malignancies are profoundly affected by epigenetic regulation. Studies have found that methylation-related mutations, abnormal methylation profiles of DNA, and abnormal histone deacetylase expression are recurrent in leukemia and lymphoma. Furthermore, the hypomethylating agents and histone deacetylase inhibitors are effective to treat acute myeloid leukemia and T-cell lymphomas, indicating that epigenetic regulation is indispensable to hematologic oncogenesis. Epigenetic regulation mainly includes DNA modifications, histone modifications, and noncoding RNA-mediated targeting, and regulates various DNA-based processes. This review presents the role of writers, readers, and erasers of DNA methylation and histone methylation, and acetylation in hematologic malignancies. In addition, this review provides the influence of microRNAs and long noncoding RNAs on hematologic malignancies. Furthermore, the implication of epigenetic regulation in targeted treatment is discussed. This review comprehensively presents the change and function of each epigenetic regulator in normal and oncogenic hematopoiesis and provides innovative epigenetic-targeted treatment in clinical practice.

Association of Kaiso and partner proteins in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Objectives

1. Identification of protein expression and subcellular localization of E-cadherin (E-cad), p120 catenin (P120ctn), and Kaiso in oral cancer (OC). 2. To study the protein expression of cyclin D1 and c-Myc (Kaiso targets) and determine their relationship with the expression and localization of Kaiso.

Methods

Histological grading was performed in accordance with Broder's criteria. Expression and localization data for E-cad, p120ctn, Kaiso, cyclin D1, and c-Myc were acquired using immunohistochemistry. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21. The chi-square test was used to measure the statistical significance of associations, with p < 0.05 as statistically significant.

Results

Of 47 OC cases, 36% showed low E-cad expression and 34% showed low p120ctn. Low Kaiso expression was recognized in 78% of tumor specimens. Aberrant cytoplasmic localization of p120ctn was seen in 80.8% cases. Cytoplasmic Kaiso localization was appreciated in 87% of tumor tissues, whereas 29.7% lacked any nuclear Kaiso. Kaiso expression was significantly associated with the expression of cyclin D1 but not with c-Myc.

Conclusion

The present study identified a change in the localization of Kaiso in OC. The significance of this in relation to OC and tumor prognosis needs to be investigated with further studies using larger sample sizes and more sensitive molecular tools.

Expressional variations of Kaiso: an association with pathological characteristics and field cancerization of OSCC

Background

A group of genetically altered cells that have not transformed into a clinical or histologically identifiable state of malignancy but contains a higher risk of transforming into one is known as the field of cancerization. Numerous molecules are being investigated for their significance in the development of this phenomenon. One such protein of this family is Kaiso also known as ZBTB33 (Zinc Finger and BTB Domain containing 33). This protein belongs to the POZ-ZF family of transcription factors and may have functional tasks similar to its other siblings such as the growth and development of vertebrates and the pathogenesis of neoplastic diseases. Nevertheless, its role in the pathogenesis, progression, epithelial mesenchyal transition and field cancerization in case of oral cancer still needs exploration. Hence, this study was designed to explore the expressional differences between the mucosa of controls and those diagnosed with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

Methods

Soft tissue samples were obtained from the main tumor, tumor periphery and opposite buccal mucosa of 50 oral cancer patients, whereas normal mucosa was taken from 50 volunteers undergoing elective tooth removal. The acquired samples were subjected to Immunohistochemical exploration for expression of Kaiso and E-Cadherin. The expression was measured using Image-J IHC profiler and summed as Optical density. The Optical density values were then subjected to statistical analysis.

Results

Results revealed a significant differential expression of Kaiso between the mucosal tissues taken from oral cancer patients and controls (p-value: < 0.0001), showing almost 50% down-regulation of Kaiso in all three tissue samples taken from oral cancer patients as compared to normal mucosa.

Conclusion

Kaiso has a significant difference of expression in the mucosa of oral cancer patients as compared to the mucosa of normal patients, making it a probable contributor to disease pathogenesis and field cancerization.

Development of BCR-ABL1 Transgenic Zebrafish Model Reproducing Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) Like-Disease and Providing a New Insight into CML Mechanisms

Zebrafish has proven to be a versatile and reliable experimental in vivo tool to study human hematopoiesis and model hematological malignancies. Transgenic technologies enable the generation of specific leukemia types by the expression of human oncogenes under specific promoters. Using this technology, a variety of myeloid and lymphoid malignancies zebrafish models have been described. Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a clonal myeloproliferative neoplasia characterized by the BCR-ABL1 fusion gene, derived from the t (9;22) translocation causing the Philadelphia Chromosome (Ph). The BCR-ABL1 protein is a constitutively activated tyrosine kinas inducing the leukemogenesis and resulting in an accumulation of immature leukemic cells into bone marrow and peripheral blood. To model Ph+ CML, a transgenic zebrafish line expressing the human BCR-ABL1 was generated by the Gal4/UAS system, and then crossed with the hsp70-Gal4 transgenic line. The new line named (BCR-ABL1pUAS:CFP/hsp70-Gal4), presented altered expression of hematopoietic markers during embryonic development compared to controls and transgenic larvae showed proliferating hematopoietic cells in the caudal hematopoietic tissue (CHT). The present transgenic zebrafish would be a robust CML model and a high-throughput drug screening tool.

Parallel bimodal single-cell sequencing of transcriptome and chromatin accessibility

Joint profiling of transcriptome and chromatin accessibility within single cells allows for the deconstruction of the complex relationship between transcriptional states and upstream regulatory programs determining different cell fates. Here, we developed an automated method with high sensitivity, assay for single-cell transcriptome and accessibility regions (ASTAR-seq), for simultaneous measurement of whole-cell transcriptome and chromatin accessibility within the same single cell. To show the utility of ASTAR-seq, we profiled 384 mESCs under naive and primed pluripotent states as well as a two-cell like state, 424 human cells of various lineage origins (BJ, K562, JK1, and Jurkat), and 480 primary cord blood cells undergoing erythroblast differentiation. With the joint profiles, we configured the transcriptional and chromatin accessibility landscapes of discrete cell states, uncovered linked sets of cis-regulatory elements and target genes unique to each state, and constructed interactome and transcription factor (TF)–centered upstream regulatory networks for various cell states.

Cys2His2 Zinc Finger Methyl-CpG Binding Proteins: Getting a Handle on Methylated DNA

DNA methylation is an essential epigenetic modification involved in the maintenance of genomic stability, preservation of cellular identity, and regulation of the transcriptional landscape needed to maintain cellular function. In an increasing number of disease conditions, DNA methylation patterns are inappropriately distributed in a manner that supports the disease phenotype. Methyl-CpG binding proteins (MBPs) are specialized transcription factors that read and translate methylated DNA signals into recruitment of protein assemblies that can alter local chromatin architecture and transcription. MBPs thus play a key intermediary role in gene regulation for both normal and diseased cells. Here, we highlight established and potential structure-function relationships for the best characterized members of the zinc finger (ZF) family of MBPs in propagating DNA methylation signals into downstream cellular responses. Current and future investigations aimed toward expanding our understanding of ZF MBP cellular roles will provide needed mechanistic insight into normal and disease state functions, as well as afford evaluation for the potential of these proteins as epigenetic-based therapeutic targets.

Cancer as an Embryological Phenomenon and Its Developmental Pathways: A Hypothesis regarding the Contribution of the Noncanonical Wnt Pathway

For gastrulation to occur in human embryos, a mechanism that simultaneously regulates many different processes, such as cell differentiation, proliferation, migration, and invasion, is required to consistently and effectively create a human being during embryonic morphogenesis. The striking similarities in the processes of cancer and gastrulation have prompted speculation regarding the developmental pathways involved in their regulation. One of the fundamental requirements for the developmental pathways in gastrulation and cancer is the ability to respond to environmental stimuli, and it has been proposed that the Kaiso and noncanonical Wnt pathways participate in the mechanisms regulating these developmental pathways. In particular, these pathways might also explain the notable differences in invasive capacity between cancers of endodermal and mesodermal origins and cancers of ectodermal origin. Nevertheless, the available information indicates that cancer is an abnormal state of adult human cells in which developmental pathways are reactivated in inappropriate temporal and spatial contexts.

Dancing from bottoms up - Roles of the POZ-ZF transcription factor Kaiso in Cancer

The POZ-ZF transcription factor Kaiso was discovered two decades ago as a binding partner for p120^ctn. Since its discovery, roles for Kaiso in diverse biological processes (epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, apoptosis, inflammation) and several signalling pathways (Wnt/β-catenin, TGFβ, EGFR, Notch) have emerged. While Kaiso's biological role in normal tissues has yet to be fully elucidated, Kaiso has been increasingly implicated in multiple human cancers including colon, prostate, ovarian, lung, breast and chronic myeloid leukemia. In the majority of human cancers investigated to date, high Kaiso expression correlates with aggressive tumor characteristics including proliferation and metastasis, and/or poor prognosis. More recently, interest in Kaiso stems from its apparent correlation with racial disparities in breast and prostate cancer incidence and survival outcomes in people of African Ancestry. This review discusses Kaiso's role in various cancers, and Kaiso's potential for driving racial disparities in incidence and/or outcomes in people of African ancestry.

Zinc Finger Readers of Methylated DNA

DNA methylation is a prevalent epigenetic modification involved in regulating a number of essential cellular processes, including genomic accessibility and transcriptional outcomes. As such, aberrant alterations in global DNA methylation patterns have been associated with a growing number of disease conditions. Nevertheless, the full mechanisms by which DNA methylation information is interpreted and translated into genomic responses is not yet fully understood. Methyl-CpG binding proteins (MBPs) function as important mediators of this essential process by selectively reading DNA methylation signals and translating this information into down-stream cellular outcomes. The Cys₂His₂ zinc finger scaffold is one of the most abundant DNA binding motifs found within human transcription factors, yet only a few zinc finger containing proteins capable of conferring selectivity for mCpG over CpG sites have been characterized. This review summarizes our current structural understanding for the mechanisms by which the zinc finger MBPs evaluated to date read this essential epigenetic mark. Further, some of the biological implications for mCpG readout elicited by this family of MBPs are discussed.

Cancer Is to Embryology as Mutation Is to Genetics: Hypothesis of the Cancer as Embryological Phenomenon

Despite numerous advances in cell biology, genetics, and developmental biology, cancer origin has been attributed to genetic mechanisms primarily involving mutations. Embryologists have expressed timidly cancer embryological origin with little success in leveraging the discussion that cancer could involve a set of conventional cellular processes used to build the embryo during morphogenesis. Thus, this "cancer process" allows the harmonious and coherent construction of the embryo structural base, and its implementation as the embryonic process involves joint regulation of differentiation, proliferation, cell invasion, and migration, enabling the human being recreation of every generation. On the other hand, "cancer disease" is the representation of an abnormal state of the cell that might happen in the stem cells of an adult person, in which the mechanism for joint gene regulating of differentiation, proliferation, cell invasion, and migration could be reactivated in an entirely inappropriate context.

Kaiso depletion attenuates the growth and survival of triple negative breast cancer cells

Triple negative breast cancers (TNBC) are highly aggressive and lack specific targeted therapies. Recent studies have reported high expression of the transcription factor Kaiso in triple negative tumors, and this correlates with their increased aggressiveness. However, little is known about the clinical relevance of Kaiso in the growth and survival of TNBCs. Herein, we report that Kaiso depletion attenuates TNBC cell proliferation, and delays tumor onset in mice xenografted with the aggressive MDA-231 breast tumor cells. We further demonstrate that Kaiso depletion attenuates the survival of TNBC cells and increases their propensity for apoptotic-mediated cell death. Notably, Kaiso depletion downregulates BRCA1 expression in TNBC cells expressing mutant-p53 and we found that high Kaiso and BRCA1 expression correlates with a poor overall survival in breast cancer patients. Collectively, our findings reveal a role for Kaiso in the proliferation and survival of TNBC cells, and suggest a relevant role for Kaiso in the prognosis and treatment of TNBCs.

Cell-specific Kaiso (ZBTB33) Regulation of Cell Cycle through Cyclin D1 and Cyclin E1

The correlation between aberrant DNA methylation with cancer promotion and progression has prompted an interest in discerning the associated regulatory mechanisms. Kaiso (ZBTB33) is a specialized transcription factor that selectively recognizes methylated CpG-containing sites as well as a sequence-specific DNA target. Increasing reports link ZBTB33 overexpression and transcriptional activities with metastatic potential and poor prognosis in cancer, although there is little mechanistic insight into how cells harness ZBTB33 transcriptional capabilities to promote and progress disease. Here we report mechanistic details for how ZBTB33 mediates cell-specific cell cycle regulation. By utilizing ZBTB33 depletion and overexpression studies, it was determined that in HeLa cells ZBTB33 directly occupies the promoters of cyclin D1 and cyclin E1, inducing proliferation by promoting retinoblastoma phosphorylation and allowing for E2F transcriptional activity that accelerates G₁- to S-phase transition. Conversely, in HEK293 cells ZBTB33 indirectly regulates cyclin E abundance resulting in reduced retinoblastoma phosphorylation, decreased E2F activity, and decelerated G₁ transition. Thus, we identified a novel mechanism by which ZBTB33 mediates the cyclin D1/cyclin E1/RB1/E2F pathway, controlling passage through the G₁ restriction point and accelerating cancer cell proliferation.

African Americans with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma exhibit gender differences in Kaiso expression

Kaiso, a bi-modal transcription factor, regulates gene expression, and is elevated in breast, prostate, and colon cancers. Depletion of Kaiso in other cancer types leads to a reduction in markers for the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (Jones et al., 2014), however its clinical implications in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDCA) have not been widely explored. PDCA is rarely detected at an early stage but is characterized by rapid progression and invasiveness. We now report the significance of the subcellular localization of Kaiso in PDCAs from African Americans. Kaiso expression is higher in the cytoplasm of invasive and metastatic pancreatic cancers. In males, cytoplasmic expression of Kaiso correlates with cancer grade and lymph node positivity. In male and female patients, cytoplasmic Kaiso expression correlates with invasiveness. Also, nuclear expression of Kaiso increases with increased invasiveness and lymph node positivity. Further, analysis of the largest PDCA dataset available on ONCOMINE shows that as Kaiso increases, there is an overall increase in Zeb1, which is the inverse for E-cadherin. Hence, these findings suggest a role for Kaiso in the progression of PDCAs, involving the EMT markers, E-cadherin and Zeb1.

Kaiso overexpression promotes intestinal inflammation and potentiates intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice

Constitutive Wnt/β-catenin signaling is a key contributor to colorectal cancer (CRC). Although inactivation of the tumor suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) is recognized as an early event in CRC development, it is the accumulation of multiple subsequent oncogenic insults facilitates malignant transformation. One potential contributor to colorectal carcinogenesis is the POZ-ZF transcription factor Kaiso, whose depletion extends lifespan and delays polyp onset in the widely used Apc(Min/+) mouse model of intestinal cancer. These findings suggested that Kaiso potentiates intestinal tumorigenesis, but this was paradoxical as Kaiso was previously implicated as a negative regulator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. To resolve Kaiso's role in intestinal tumorigenesis and canonical Wnt signaling, we generated a transgenic mouse model (Kaiso(Tg/+)) expressing an intestinal-specific myc-tagged Kaiso transgene. We then mated Kaiso(Tg/+) and Apc(Min/+) mice to generate Kaiso(Tg/+):Apc(Min/+) mice for further characterization. Kaiso(Tg/+):Apc(Min/+) mice exhibited reduced lifespan and increased polyp multiplicity compared to Apc(Min/+) mice. Consistent with this murine phenotype, we found increased Kaiso expression in human CRC tissue, supporting a role for Kaiso in human CRC. Interestingly, Wnt target gene expression was increased in Kaiso(Tg/+):Apc(Min/+) mice, suggesting that Kaiso's function as a negative regulator of canonical Wnt signaling, as seen in Xenopus, is not maintained in this context. Notably, Kaiso(Tg/+):Apc(Min/+) mice exhibited increased inflammation and activation of NFκB signaling compared to their Apc(Min/+) counterparts. This phenotype was consistent with our previous report that Kaiso(Tg/+) mice exhibit chronic intestinal inflammation. Together our findings highlight a role for Kaiso in promoting Wnt signaling, inflammation and tumorigenesis in the mammalian intestine.

Phenolic metabolites of benzene induced caspase-dependent cytotoxicities to K562 cells accompanied with decrease in cell surface sialic acids

Benzene-induced erythropoietic depression has been proposed to be due to the production of toxic metabolites. Presently, the cytotoxicities of benzene metabolites, including phenol, catechol, hydroquinone, and 1,2,4-benzenetriol, to erythroid progenitor-like K562 cells were investigated. After exposure to these metabolites, K562 cells showed significant inhibition of viability and apoptotic characteristics. Each metabolite caused a significant increase in activities of caspase-3, -8, and -9, and pretreatment with caspase-3, -8, and -9 inhibitors significantly inhibited benzene metabolites-induced phosphatidylserine exposure. These metabolites also elevated expression of Fas and FasL on the cell surface. After exposure to benzene metabolites, K562 cells showed an increase in reactive oxygen species level, and pretreatment with N-acetyl-l-cysteine significantly protected against the cytotoxicity of each metabolite. Interestingly, the control K562 cells and the phenol-exposed cells aggregated together, but the cells exposed to other metabolites were scattered. Further analysis showed that hydroquione, catechol, and 1,2,4-benzenetriol induced a decrease in the cell surface sialic acid levels and an increase in the cell surface sialidase activity, but phenol did not cause any changes in sialic acid levels and sialidase activity. Consistently, an increase in expression level of sialidase Neu3 mRNA and a decrease in mRNA level of sialyltransferase ST3GAL3 gene were detected in hydroquione-, catechol-, or 1,2,4-benzenetriol-treated cells, but no change in mRNA levels of two genes were found in phenol-treated cells. In conclusion, these benzene metabolites could induce apoptosis of K562 cells mainly through caspase-8-dependent pathway and ROS production, and sialic acid metabolism might play a role in the apoptotic process.

Genetic events other than BCR-ABL1

The BCR-ABL1 oncoprotein is the cause of chronic myeloid leukemia and occurs as a consequence of the translocation t(9;22), a well-defined genetic event that results in the formation of the Philadelphia chromosome. While this genomic aberration is recognized to be the main culprit of the chronic phase of chronic myeloid leukemia, the natural clonal evolution of this myeloproliferative neoplasm involves the accumulation of secondary alterations through genomic instability. Thus, efforts to dissect the frequency and nature of the genomic events at diagnosis and at later stages are producing valuable insights into understanding the mechanisms of blastic transformation and development of resistance in chronic myeloid leukemia. The identification of alternative BCR-ABL1-dependent and BCR-ABL1-independent targets that sustain the survival of leukemic blasts and/or leukemia-initiating cells will facilitate the development of novel viable therapeutic options for patients who become resistant or intolerant to the currently available therapeutic options based on tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Distribution of Kaiso protein in mouse tissues

The Kaiso protein was originally described as a BTB/POZ zinc-finger transcription factor and a p120-catenin-binding partner. It is a DNA methylation-dependent transcriptional repressor, but its biological role in mice is still unknown. Here, we characterized a Kaiso-specific antibody by examining Kaiso protein distribution by immunofluorescence microscopy in the following tissues and cell types of adult mice: skin, small intestine, mammary glands, urinary bladder, and others. This study is the first to demonstrate that Kaiso is expressed in most of the examined tissues. Kaiso was localized to the nucleus in almost all tissues. However, it was primarily cytoplasmic in photoreceptor cells in the eye (rods and cones). Furthermore, Kaiso is expressed in a specific subset of male germ cells that are characterized by partly positive PLZF and Bmi-1 staining. In this study, we present the first confirmation of the reliability of expression data using Kaiso knockout mice.

Nuclear localization of Kaiso promotes the poorly differentiated phenotype and EMT in infiltrating ductal carcinomas

The expression and biological consequences of Kaiso, a novel bi-modal transcription factor, in infiltrating ductal carcinomas (IDCs) have not been widely investigated. In the present study, we determined Kaiso expression and subcellular localization in 146 normal tissues, 376 IDCs, and 85 lymph node metastases. In IDCs, there was higher Kaiso expression in both the cytoplasmic and nuclear compartments, which correlated with age <48 (cytoplasmic p < 0.0093; nuclear p < 0.0001) and moderate differentiation (cytoplasmic p < 0.0042; nuclear p < 0.0001), as determined by Chi square analysis. However, only nuclear Kaiso correlated with poor prognostic factors, i.e., race (African Americans) (p < 0.0001), poor differentiation (p < 0.0001), and metastases (p < 0.0001). Nuclear Kaiso was also associated with worse overall survival (p < 0.0019), with African American patients displaying worse survival rates relative to Caucasian patients (p < 0.029). MCF-7 (non-metastatic), MDA-MB-468 (few metastases), and MDA-MB-231 (highly metastatic) breast cancer cells demonstrated increasing Kaiso levels, with more nuclear localization in the highly metastatic cell line. Over-expression of Kaiso in MCF-7 cells increased cell migration and invasion, but treatment of MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231 cells with si-Kaiso decreased cell migration and invasion and induced expression of E-cadherin RNA and protein. E-cadherin re-expression was associated with a reversal of mesenchymal associated cadherins, N-cadherin and cadherin 11, as well as decreased vitamin expression. Further, Kaiso directly bound to methylated sequences in the E-cadherin promoter, an effect prevented by 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine. Immunofluorescence co-staining of poorly differentiated IDCs demonstrated that nuclear Kaiso is associated with a loss of E-cadherin expression. These findings support a role for Kaiso in promoting aggressive breast tumors.

The POZ-ZF transcription factor Kaiso (ZBTB33) induces inflammation and progenitor cell differentiation in the murine intestine

Since its discovery, several studies have implicated the POZ-ZF protein Kaiso in both developmental and tumorigenic processes. However, most of the information regarding Kaiso’s function to date has been gleaned from studies in Xenopus laevis embryos and mammalian cultured cells. To examine Kaiso’s role in a relevant, mammalian organ-specific context, we generated and characterized a Kaiso transgenic mouse expressing a murine Kaiso transgene under the control of the intestine-specific villin promoter. Kaiso transgenic mice were viable and fertile but pathological examination of the small intestine revealed distinct morphological changes. Kaiso transgenics (Kaiso^Tg/+) exhibited a crypt expansion phenotype that was accompanied by increased differentiation of epithelial progenitor cells into secretory cell lineages; this was evidenced by increased cell populations expressing Goblet, Paneth and enteroendocrine markers. Paradoxically however, enhanced differentiation in Kaiso^Tg/+ was accompanied by reduced proliferation, a phenotype reminiscent of Notch inhibition. Indeed, expression of the Notch signalling target HES-1 was decreased in Kaiso^Tg/+ animals. Finally, our Kaiso transgenics exhibited several hallmarks of inflammation, including increased neutrophil infiltration and activation, villi fusion and crypt hyperplasia. Interestingly, the Kaiso binding partner and emerging anti-inflammatory mediator p120^ctn is recruited to the nucleus in Kaiso^Tg/+ mice intestinal cells suggesting that Kaiso may elicit inflammation by antagonizing p120^ctn function.