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Check JH, Check DL. The role of progesterone and the progesterone receptor in cancer: progress in the last 5 years. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2023; 18:5-18. [PMID: 36647582 DOI: 10.1080/17446651.2023.2166487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Patients with various advanced cancers devoid of nuclear progesterone receptors (nPR) have demonstrated increased quality and length of life when treated with the PR modulator mifepristone, which likely works by interacting with membrane PRs (mPR). AREAS COVERED Two immunomodulatory proteins are discussed that seem to play a role in cancers that proliferate whether the malignant tumor is positive or negative for the nPR. These two proteins are the progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC-1) and the progesterone-induced blocking factor (PIBF). Both PGRMC-1 and the parent form of PIBF foster increased tumor aggressiveness, whereas splice variants of the 90 kDa form of PIBF inhibit immune response against cancer cells. EXPERT OPINION The marked clinical improvement following 200-300 mg of mifepristone is likely related to blocking PIBF. In the low dosage used, mifepristone likely acts as an agonist for PGRMC-1 protein. Mifepristone may be less effective for cancers positive for the nPR because the nPR may be protective and blocking it may have detrimental effects. Based on this hypothetical model, the development of other potential treatment options to provide even greater efficacy for treating cancer are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome H Check
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, New Jersey, USA
- Cooper Institute for Reproductive Hormonal Disorders P.C, Mt. Laurel, New Jersey, USA
| | - Diane L Check
- Cooper Institute for Reproductive Hormonal Disorders P.C, Mt. Laurel, New Jersey, USA
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Anticancer effects of mifepristone on human uveal melanoma cells. Cancer Cell Int 2021; 21:607. [PMID: 34789240 PMCID: PMC8597220 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-021-02306-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Uveal melanoma (UM), the most prevalent intraocular tumor in adults, is a highly metastatic and drug resistant lesion. Recent studies have demonstrated cytotoxic and anti-metastatic effects of the antiprogestin and antiglucocorticoid mifepristone (MF) in vitro and in clinical trials involving meningioma, colon, breast, and ovarian cancers. Drug repurposing is a cost-effective approach to bring approved drugs with good safety profiles to the clinic. This current study assessed the cytotoxic effects of MF in human UM cell lines of different genetic backgrounds. Methods The effects of incremental concentrations of MF (0, 5, 10, 20, or 40 μM) on a panel of human UM primary (MEL270, 92.1, MP41, and MP46) and metastatic (OMM2.5) cells were evaluated. Cells were incubated with MF for up to 72 h before subsequent assays were conducted. Cellular functionality and viability were assessed by Cell Counting Kit-8, trypan blue exclusion assay, and quantitative label-free IncuCyte live-cell analysis. Cell death was analyzed by binding of Annexin V-FITC and/or PI, caspase-3/7 activity, and DNA fragmentation. Additionally, the release of cell-free DNA was assessed by droplet digital PCR, while the expression of progesterone and glucocorticoid receptors was determined by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR. Results MF treatment reduced cellular proliferation and viability of all UM cell lines studied in a concentration-dependent manner. A reduction in cell growth was observed at lower concentrations of MF, with evidence of cell death at higher concentrations. A significant increase in Annexin V-FITC and PI double positive cells, caspase-3/7 activity, DNA fragmentation, and cell-free DNA release suggests potent cytotoxicity of MF. None of the tested human UM cells expressed the classical progesterone receptor in the absence or presence of MF treatment, suggesting a mechanism independent of the modulation of the cognate nuclear progesterone receptor. In turn, all cells expressed non-classical progesterone receptors and the glucocorticoid receptor. Conclusion This study demonstrates that MF impedes the proliferation of UM cells in a concentration-dependent manner. We report that MF treatment at lower concentrations results in cell growth arrest, while increasing the concentration leads to lethality. MF, which has a good safety profile, could be a reliable adjuvant of a repurposing therapy against UM. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02306-y.
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Mifepristone Treatment Promotes Testicular Leydig Cell Tumor Progression in Transgenic Mice. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12113263. [PMID: 33158280 PMCID: PMC7694279 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Recently, the antiprogestin activity of selective progesterone receptor (PR) modulator mifepristone (MF) has proven unsuccessful as a potential anti-cancer agent in various clinical trials. Herein, we analyzed the effects of MF treatment on Leydig cell tumor (LCT) progression in a transgenic mouse model (inhibin-α promoter-driven SV40 T-antigen), as well as on the proliferation of two Leydig tumor cell lines. MF significantly stimulated the proliferation of LCT in vitro. Similarly, a 1-mo MF or P4 treatment stimulated LCT tumor growth in vivo. Only the abundant membrane Pgrmc1 expression was found in LCTs, but no other classical Pgr or nonclassical membrane PRs. Functional analysis showed that PGRMC1 is required for MF and P4 to stimulate the proliferation and invasiveness of LCTs. Our findings provide novel information that the use of MF as an anti-cancer agent should be considered with caution due to its potential PGRMC1 tumor-promoting pathway activation in cancers. Abstract The selective progesterone receptor modulator mifepristone (MF) may act as a potent antiproliferative agent in different steroid-dependent cancers due to its strong antagonistic effect on the nuclear progesterone receptor (PGR). Hereby, we analyzed the effects of MF treatment on Leydig cell tumor (LCT) progression in a transgenic mouse model (inhibin-α promoter-driven SV40 T-antigen), as well as on LCT (BLTK-1 and mLTC-1) cell proliferation. MF significantly stimulated the proliferation of LCT in vitro. Similarly, a 1-mo MF or P4 treatment stimulated LCT tumor growth in vivo. Traceable/absent classical Pgr or nonclassical membrane PRs α, β, γ and Pgrmc2, but abundant membrane Pgrmc1 expression, was found in LCTs. MF did not activate glucocorticoid or androgen receptors in LCTs. Functional analysis showed that PGRMC1 is required for MF and P4 to stimulate the proliferation and invasiveness of LCTs. Accordingly, MF and P4 induced PGRMC1 translocation into the nucleus and thereby stimulated the release of TGFβ1 in LCT cells. MF and P4 treatments upregulated Tgfbr1, Tgfbr2, and Alk1 expression and stimulated TGFβ1 release in LCT cells. Our findings provide novel mechanistic insights into the action of MF as a membrane PR agonist that promotes LCT growth through PGRMC1 and the alternative TGFβ1 signaling pathway.
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Molecular mechanisms underlying mifepristone's agonistic action on ovarian cancer progression. EBioMedicine 2019; 47:170-183. [PMID: 31466918 PMCID: PMC6796594 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent clinical trials on ovarian cancer with mifepristone (MF) have failed, despite in vitro findings on its strong progesterone (P4) antagonist function. Methods Ovarian cancer human and murine cell lines, cultured high-grade human primary epithelial ovarian cancer (HG-hOEC) cells and their explants; as well as in vivo transgenic mice possessing ovarian cancer were used to assess the molecular mechanism underlying mifepristone (MF) agonistic actions in ovarian cancer progression. Findings Herein, we show that ovarian cancer cells express traceable/no nuclear P4 receptor (PGR), but abundantly P4 receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1). MF significantly stimulated ovarian cancer cell migration, proliferation and growth in vivo, and the translocation of PGRMC1 into the nucleus of cancer cells; the effects inhibited by PGRMC1 inhibitor. The beneficial antitumor effect of high-doses MF could not be achieved in human cancer tissue, and the low tissue concentrations achieved with the therapeutic doses only promoted the growth of ovarian cancers. Interpretation Our results indicate that treatment of ovarian cancer with MF and P4 may induce similar adverse agonistic effects in the absence of classical nuclear PGRs in ovarian cancer. The blockage of PGRMC1 activity may provide a novel treatment strategy for ovarian cancer. Fund This work was supported by grants from the National Science Centre, Poland (2013/09/N/NZ5/01831 to DP-T; 2012/05/B/NZ5/01867 to MC), Academy of Finland (254366 to NAR), Moikoinen Cancer Research Foundation (to NAR) and EU PARP Cluster grant (UDA-POIG.05.01.00-005/12-00/NCREMFP to SW).
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Kapperman HE, Goyeneche AA, Telleria CM. Mifepristone inhibits non-small cell lung carcinoma cellular escape from DNA damaging cisplatin. Cancer Cell Int 2018; 18:185. [PMID: 30479564 PMCID: PMC6238342 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-018-0683-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the world. The major histopathological subtype of lung cancer is non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Platinum-based therapy is the standard of care for patients with advanced stage NSCLC. However, even with treatment, most patients will die of this disease within 5 years and most of these deaths are due to recurrence. One strategy to inhibit recurrence is to use cytostatic compounds following courses of lethal chemotherapy. We have shown in various cancer cell types that mifepristone (MF), an anti-progestin/anti-glucocorticoid, is a powerful cytostatic anti-cancer agent. Thus, in this work we tested the hypothesis that MF should be efficacious in inducing cytostasis and preventing repopulation of NSCLC following cisplatin (CDDP) therapy. Methods We established an in vitro approach wherein human NSCLC cells with different genetic backgrounds and sensitivities to CDDP (A549 and H23) were exposed to rounds of lethal concentrations of CDDP for 1 h followed or not by MF monotherapy. Every 2 days, cell number, cell viability, and colony-forming ability of viable cells were studied. Results CDDP killed the majority of cells, yet there were remnant cells escaping CDDP lethality and repopulating the culture, as evidenced by the improved clonogenic survival of viable cells. In contrast, when cells exposed to CDDP where further treated with MF following CDDP removal, their number and clonogenic capacity were reduced drastically. Conclusion This study reports that there is repopulation of NSCLC cells following a lethal concentration of CDDP monotherapy, that NSCLC cells are sensitive to the growth inhibition properties of MF, and that MF abrogates the repopulation of NSCLC cells following CDDP therapy. Our study supports further evaluating MF as an adjuvant therapy for NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E Kapperman
- 2Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069 USA.,3Present Address: Eisenhower Army Medical Center, Ft. Gordon, GA USA
| | - Alicia A Goyeneche
- 1Experimental Pathology Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4 Canada
| | - Carlos M Telleria
- 1Experimental Pathology Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3775 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4 Canada
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Liu D, Zhang XX, Li MC, Cao CH, Wan DY, Xi BX, Tan JH, Wang J, Yang ZY, Feng XX, Ye F, Chen G, Wu P, Xi L, Wang H, Zhou JF, Feng ZH, Ma D, Gao QL. C/EBPβ enhances platinum resistance of ovarian cancer cells by reprogramming H3K79 methylation. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1739. [PMID: 29712898 PMCID: PMC5928165 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03590-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemoresistance is a major unmet clinical obstacle in ovarian cancer treatment. Epigenetics plays a pivotal role in regulating the malignant phenotype, and has the potential in developing therapeutically valuable targets that improve the dismal outcome of this disease. Here we show that a series of transcription factors, including C/EBPβ, GCM1, and GATA1, could act as potential modulators of histone methylation in tumor cells. Of note, C/EBPβ, an independent prognostic factor for patients with ovarian cancer, mediates an important mechanism through which epigenetic enzyme modifies groups of functionally related genes in a context-dependent manner. By recruiting the methyltransferase DOT1L, C/EBPβ can maintain an open chromatin state by H3K79 methylation of multiple drug-resistance genes, thereby augmenting the chemoresistance of tumor cells. Therefore, we propose a new path against cancer epigenetics in which identifying and targeting the key regulators of epigenetics such as C/EBPβ may provide more precise therapeutic options in ovarian cancer. In ovarian cancer, the mechanism of chemoresistance is a key question. Here, the authors demonstrate that C/EBPβ and DOT1L together increase methylation of H3K79, which upregulates expression of oncogenic genes and drives poor platinum response and poor survival in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Liu
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Xue Zhang
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Chen Li
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Can-Hui Cao
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong-Yi Wan
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Bi-Xin Xi
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Hong Tan
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Ji Wang
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Zong-Yuan Yang
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin-Xia Feng
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Ye
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Chen
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Wu
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Xi
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Wang
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Feng Zhou
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Zuo-Hua Feng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Ding Ma
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing-Lei Gao
- Cancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, People's Republic of China.
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Zhang L, Hapon MB, Goyeneche AA, Srinivasan R, Gamarra-Luques CD, Callegari EA, Drappeau DD, Terpstra EJ, Pan B, Knapp JR, Chien J, Wang X, Eyster KM, Telleria CM. Mifepristone increases mRNA translation rate, triggers the unfolded protein response, increases autophagic flux, and kills ovarian cancer cells in combination with proteasome or lysosome inhibitors. Mol Oncol 2016; 10:1099-117. [PMID: 27233943 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthetic steroid mifepristone blocks the growth of ovarian cancer cells, yet the mechanism driving such effect is not entirely understood. Unbiased genomic and proteomic screenings using ovarian cancer cell lines of different genetic backgrounds and sensitivities to platinum led to the identification of two key genes upregulated by mifepristone and involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR): the master chaperone of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), glucose regulated protein (GRP) of 78 kDa, and the CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous transcription factor (CHOP). GRP78 and CHOP were upregulated by mifepristone in ovarian cancer cells regardless of p53 status and platinum sensitivity. Further studies revealed that the three UPR-associated pathways, PERK, IRE1α, and ATF6, were activated by mifepristone. Also, the synthetic steroid acutely increased mRNA translation rate, which, if prevented, abrogated the splicing of XBP1 mRNA, a non-translatable readout of IRE1α activation. Moreover, mifepristone increased LC3-II levels due to increased autophagic flux. When the autophagic-lysosomal pathway was inhibited with chloroquine, mifepristone was lethal to the cells. Lastly, doses of proteasome inhibitors that are inadequate to block the activity of the proteasomes, caused cell death when combined with mifepristone; this phenotype was accompanied by accumulation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins denoting proteasome inhibition. The stimulation by mifepristone of ER stress and autophagic flux offers a therapeutic opportunity for utilizing this compound to sensitize ovarian cancer cells to proteasome or lysosome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Maria B Hapon
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Alicia A Goyeneche
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Rekha Srinivasan
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Carlos D Gamarra-Luques
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Eduardo A Callegari
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Donis D Drappeau
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Erin J Terpstra
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Bo Pan
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Jennifer R Knapp
- Kansas Intellectual and Development Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Jeremy Chien
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Xuejun Wang
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Kathleen M Eyster
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Carlos M Telleria
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada.
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Zucha MA, Wu ATH, Lee WH, Wang LS, Lin WW, Yuan CC, Yeh CT. Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) inhibitor ibrutinib suppresses stem-like traits in ovarian cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 6:13255-68. [PMID: 26036311 PMCID: PMC4537012 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
According to a Prognoscan database, upregulation of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) is associated with low overall survival in ovarian cancer patients. We found that spheroids-forming ovarian cancer cell, which highly expressed cancer stem-like cell (CSC) markers and Btk, were cisplatin resistant. We next treated CSCs and non-CSCs by a combination of ibrutinib and cisplatin. We found that chemoresistance was dependent on Btk and JAK2/STAT3, which maintained CSC by inducing Sox-2 and prosurvival genes. We suggest that addition of ibrutinib to cisplatin may improve treatment outcome in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ary Zucha
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Gadjah Mada University-Sardjito Central Hospital, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Alexander T H Wu
- Graduate Institute of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Translational Research Laboratory, Cancer Center, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Hwa Lee
- Department of Pathology, Taipei Medical University-Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Shun Wang
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Wan Lin
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chiou-Chung Yuan
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, Shuang-Ho Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Tai Yeh
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Research and Education, Taipei Medical University-Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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Abstract
Antiprogestins constitute a group of compounds, developed since the early 1980s, that bind progesterone receptors with different affinities. The first clinical uses for antiprogestins were in reproductive medicine, e.g., menstrual regulation, emergency contraception, and termination of early pregnancies. These initial applications, however, belied the capacity for these compounds to interfere with cell growth. Within the context of gynecological diseases, antiprogestins can block the growth of and kill gynecological-related cancer cells, such as those originating in the breast, ovary, endometrium, and cervix. They can also interrupt the excessive growth of cells giving rise to benign gynecological diseases such as endometriosis and leiomyomata (uterine fibroids). In this article, we present a review of the literature providing support for the antigrowth activity that antiprogestins impose on cells in various gynecological diseases. We also provide a summary of the cellular and molecular mechanisms reported for these compounds that lead to cell growth inhibition and death. The preclinical knowledge gained during the past few years provides robust evidence to encourage the use of antiprogestins in order to alleviate the burden of gynecological diseases, either as monotherapies or as adjuvants of other therapies with the perspective of allowing for long-term treatments with tolerable side effects. The key to the clinical success of antiprogestins in this field probably lies in selecting those patients who will benefit from this therapy. This can be achieved by defining the genetic makeup required - within each particular gynecological disease - for attaining an objective response to antiprogestin-driven growth inhibition therapy.Free Spanish abstractA Spanish translation of this abstract is freely available at http://www.reproduction-online.org/content/149/1/15/suppl/DC1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia A Goyeneche
- Division of Basic Biomedical SciencesSanford School of Medicine, The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA
| | - Carlos M Telleria
- Division of Basic Biomedical SciencesSanford School of Medicine, The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA
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Gamarra-Luques CD, Hapon MB, Goyeneche AA, Telleria CM. Resistance to cisplatin and paclitaxel does not affect the sensitivity of human ovarian cancer cells to antiprogestin-induced cytotoxicity. J Ovarian Res 2014; 7:45. [PMID: 24795781 PMCID: PMC4007005 DOI: 10.1186/1757-2215-7-45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Antiprogestin compounds have been shown to be effective in blocking the growth of ovarian cancer cells of different genetic backgrounds. Herein we studied the anti-ovarian cancer effect of a series of antiprogestins sharing the chemical backbone of the most characterized antiprogestin, mifepristone, but with unique modifications in position C-17 of the steroid ring. We assessed the effect of mifepristone-like antiprogestins on the growth of ovarian cancer cells sensitive to the standard combination therapy cisplatin-paclitaxel or made double-resistant upon six cycles of pulse-selection with the drugs used at clinically relevant concentrations and exposure times. Methods IGROV-1 and SKOV-3 cells were pulsed with 20 μM cisplatin for 1 h followed by 100 nM paclitaxel for 3 h once a week for six weeks. The cells that did not die and repopulate the culture after the chemotherapies were termed Platinum-Taxane-EScape cells (PTES). Parental cells were compared against their PTES derivatives in their responses to further platinum-taxane treatments. Moreover, both ovarian cancer cells and their PTES siblings were exposed to escalating doses of the various antiprogestin derivatives. We assessed cell growth, viability and sub-G1 DNA content using microcapillary cytometry. Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21cip1 and p27kip1 and cleavage of downstream caspase-3 substrate PARP were used to assess whether cell fate, as a consequence of treatment, was limited to cytostasis or progressed to lethality. Results Cells subjected to six pulse-selection cycles of cisplatin-paclitaxel gave rise to sibling derivatives that displayed ~2-7 fold reduction in their sensitivities to further chemotherapy. However, regardless of the sensitivity the cells developed to the combination cisplatin-paclitaxel, they displayed similar sensitivity to the antiprogestins, which blocked their growth in a dose-related manner, with lower concentrations causing cytostasis, and higher concentrations causing lethality. Conclusions Antiprogestins carrying a backbone similar to mifepristone are cytotoxic to ovarian cancer cells in a manner that does not depend on the sensitivity the cells have to the standard ovarian cancer chemotherapeutics, cisplatin and paclitaxel. Thus, antiprogestin therapy could be used to treat ovarian cancer cells showing resistance to both platinum and taxanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos D Gamarra-Luques
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South, Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA ; Present Address: Institute of Medicine and Experimental Biology of Cuyo, National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Maria B Hapon
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South, Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA ; Present Address: Institute of Medicine and Experimental Biology of Cuyo, National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Alicia A Goyeneche
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South, Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Carlos M Telleria
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, The University of South, Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
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Chen J, Wang J, Shao J, Gao Y, Xu J, Yu S, Liu Z, Jia L. The Unique Pharmacological Characteristics of Mifepristone (RU486): From Terminating Pregnancy to Preventing Cancer Metastasis. Med Res Rev 2014; 34:979-1000. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianzhong Chen
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
- School of Pharmacy; Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; Fuzhou 350108 China
| | - Jichuang Wang
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
| | - Jingwei Shao
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
| | - Yu Gao
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
| | - Jianguo Xu
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
| | - Suhong Yu
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
| | - Zhenhua Liu
- Department of Clinical Oncology; Fujian Province Hospital; Fuzhou 350004 China
| | - Lee Jia
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Center; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou 350002 China
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Brandhagen BN, Tieszen CR, Ulmer TM, Tracy MS, Goyeneche AA, Telleria CM. Cytostasis and morphological changes induced by mifepristone in human metastatic cancer cells involve cytoskeletal filamentous actin reorganization and impairment of cell adhesion dynamics. BMC Cancer 2013; 13:35. [PMID: 23351358 PMCID: PMC3562154 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-13-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Changes in cell shape and plasticity in cytoskeletal dynamics are critically involved in cell adhesion, migration, invasion and the overall process of metastasis. Previous work in our laboratory demonstrated that the synthetic steroid mifepristone inhibited the growth of highly metastatic cancer cells, while simultaneously causing striking changes in cellular morphology. Here we assessed whether such morphological alterations developed in response to cytostatic concentrations of mifepristone are reversible or permanent, involve rearrangement of cytoskeletal proteins, and/or affect the adhesive capacity of the cells. Methods Cancer cell lines of the ovary (SKOV-3), breast (MDA-MB-231), prostate (LNCaP), and nervous system (U87MG) were exposed to cytostatic concentrations of mifepristone and studied by phase-contrast microscopy. The transient or permanent nature of the cytostasis and morphological changes caused by mifepristone was assessed, as well as the rearrangement of cytoskeletal proteins. De-adhesion and adhesion assays were utilized to determine if mifepristone-arrested and morphologically dysregulated cells had abnormal de-adhesion/adhesion dynamics when compared to vehicle-treated controls. Results Mifepristone-treated cells displayed a long, thin, spindle-like shape with boundaries resembling those of loosely adhered cells. Growth arrest and morphology changes caused by mifepristone were reversible in SKOV-3, MDA-MB-231 and U87MG, but not in LNCaP cells that instead became senescent. All cancer cell types exposed to mifepristone displayed greatly increased actin ruffling in association with accelerated de-adhesion from the culture plate, and delayed adhesion capacity to various extracellular matrix components. Conclusions Cytostatic concentrations of mifepristone induced alterations in the cellular structure of a panel of aggressive, highly metastatic cancer cells of different tissues of origin. Such changes were associated with re-distribution of actin fibers that mainly form non-adhesive membrane ruffles, leading to dysregulated cellular adhesion capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- BreeAnn N Brandhagen
- Division of Basic Biomedical Science, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
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Kapoor S. Re: mifepristone inhibits GRβ coupled prostate cancer cell proliferation. J Urol 2012. [PMID: 23201377 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2012.11.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Gamarra-Luques CD, Goyeneche AA, Hapon MB, Telleria CM. Mifepristone prevents repopulation of ovarian cancer cells escaping cisplatin-paclitaxel therapy. BMC Cancer 2012; 12:200. [PMID: 22642877 PMCID: PMC3381704 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-12-200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Advanced ovarian cancer is treated with cytoreductive surgery and combination platinum- and taxane-based chemotherapy. Although most patients have acute clinical response to this strategy, the disease ultimately recurs. In this work we questioned whether the synthetic steroid mifepristone, which as monotherapy inhibits the growth of ovarian cancer cells, is capable of preventing repopulation of ovarian cancer cells if given after a round of lethal cisplatin-paclitaxel combination treatment. Methods We established an in vitro approach wherein ovarian cancer cells with various sensitivities to cisplatin or paclitaxel were exposed to a round of lethal doses of cisplatin for 1 h plus paclitaxel for 3 h. Thereafter, cells were maintained in media with or without mifepristone, and short- and long-term cytotoxicity was assessed. Results Four days after treatment the lethality of cisplatin-paclitaxel was evidenced by reduced number of cells, increased hypodiploid DNA content, morphological features of apoptosis, DNA fragmentation, and cleavage of caspase-3, and of its downstream substrate PARP. Short-term presence of mifepristone either enhanced or did not modify such acute lethality. Seven days after receiving cisplatin-paclitaxel, cultures showed signs of relapse with escaping colonies that repopulated the plate in a time-dependent manner. Conversely, cultures exposed to cisplatin-paclitaxel followed by mifepristone not only did not display signs of repopulation following initial chemotherapy, but they also had their clonogenic capacity drastically reduced when compared to cells repopulating after cisplatin-paclitaxel. Conclusions Cytostatic concentrations of mifepristone after exposure to lethal doses of cisplatin and paclitaxel in combination blocks repopulation of remnant cells surviving and escaping the cytotoxic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos D Gamarra-Luques
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD, USA
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Wempe SL, Gamarra-Luques CD, Telleria CM. Synergistic lethality of mifepristone and LY294002 in ovarian cancer cells. CANCER GROWTH AND METASTASIS 2012; 6:1-13. [PMID: 23420486 PMCID: PMC3571730 DOI: 10.4137/cgm.s11124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that the antiprogestin and antiglucocorticoid mifepristone inhibits the growth of ovarian cancer cells. In this work, we hypothesized that cellular stress caused by mifepristone is limited to cytostasis and that cell killing is avoided as a consequence of the persistent activity of the PI3K/Akt survival pathway. To investigate the role of this pathway in mifepristone-induced growth inhibition, human ovarian cancer cells of various histological subtypes and genetic backgrounds were exposed to cytostatic doses of mifepristone in the presence or absence of the PI3K inhibitor, LY294002. The activation of Akt in ovarian cancer cells, as marked by its phosphorylation on Ser473, was not modified by cytostatic concentrations of mifepristone, but it was blocked upon treatment with LY294002. The combination mifepristone/LY294002, but not the individual drugs, killed ovarian cancer cells via apoptosis, as attested by genomic DNA fragmentation and cleavage of caspase-3, and the concomitant downregulation of antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and XIAP. From a pharmacological standpoint, when assessing cell growth inhibition using a median-dose analysis algorithm, the interaction between mifepristone and LY294002 was synergistic. The lethality caused by the combination mifepristone/LY294004 in 2-dimensional cell cultures was recapitulated in organized, 3-dimensional spheroids. This study demonstrates that mifepristone and LY294002 when used individually cause cell growth arrest; yet, when combined, they cause lethality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos M Telleria
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069
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Han Z, Hong Z, Gao Q, Chen C, Hao Z, Ji T, Hu W, Yan Y, Feng J, Liao S, Wu P, Wang D, Wang S, Zhou J, Ma D. A Potent Oncolytic Adenovirus Selectively Blocks the STAT3 Signaling Pathway and Potentiates Cisplatin Antitumor Activity in Ovarian Cancer. Hum Gene Ther 2012; 23:32-45. [PMID: 21875334 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2011.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Han
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Zhenya Hong
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Qinglei Gao
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Caihong Chen
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Zhou Hao
- Institute of Hematology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Teng Ji
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Wencheng Hu
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Yuting Yan
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Jing Feng
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Shujie Liao
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Peng Wu
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Daowen Wang
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Shixuan Wang
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Jianfeng Zhou
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Ding Ma
- Cancer Biology Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
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Tieszen CR, Goyeneche AA, Brandhagen BN, Ortbahn CT, Telleria CM. Antiprogestin mifepristone inhibits the growth of cancer cells of reproductive and non-reproductive origin regardless of progesterone receptor expression. BMC Cancer 2011; 11:207. [PMID: 21619605 PMCID: PMC3125282 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-11-207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mifepristone (MF) has been largely used in reproductive medicine due to its capacity to modulate the progesterone receptor (PR). The study of MF has been expanded to the field of oncology; yet it remains unclear whether the expression of PR is required for MF to act as an anti-cancer agent. Our laboratory has shown that MF is a potent inhibitor of ovarian cancer cell growth. In this study we questioned whether the growth inhibitory properties of MF observed in ovarian cancer cells would translate to other cancers of reproductive and non-reproductive origin and, importantly, whether its efficacy is related to the expression of cognate PR. Methods Dose-response experiments were conducted with cancer cell lines of the nervous system, breast, prostate, ovary, and bone. Cultures were exposed to vehicle or increasing concentrations of MF for 72 h and analysed for cell number and cell cycle traverse, and hypodiploid DNA content characteristic of apoptotic cell death. For all cell lines, expression of steroid hormone receptors upon treatment with vehicle or cytostatic doses of MF for 24 h was studied by Western blot, whereas the activity of the G1/S regulatory protein Cdk2 in both treatment groups was monitored in vitro by the capacity of Cdk2 to phosphorylate histone H1. Results MF growth inhibited all cancer cell lines regardless of tissue of origin and hormone responsiveness, and reduced the activity of Cdk2. Cancer cells in which MF induced G1 growth arrest were less susceptible to lethality in the presence of high concentrations of MF, when compared to cancer cells that did not accumulate in G1. While all cancer cell lines were growth inhibited by MF, only the breast cancer MCF-7 cells expressed cognate PR. Conclusions Antiprogestin MF inhibits the growth of different cancer cell lines with a cytostatic effect at lower concentrations in association with a decline in the activity of the cell cycle regulatory protein Cdk2, and apoptotic lethality at higher doses in association with increased hypodiploid DNA content. Contrary to common opinion, growth inhibition of cancer cells by antiprogestin MF is not dependent upon expression of classical, nuclear PR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea R Tieszen
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, USA
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Goyeneche AA, Seidel EE, Telleria CM. Growth inhibition induced by antiprogestins RU-38486, ORG-31710, and CDB-2914 in ovarian cancer cells involves inhibition of cyclin dependent kinase 2. Invest New Drugs 2011; 30:967-80. [PMID: 21424700 PMCID: PMC3348464 DOI: 10.1007/s10637-011-9655-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Antiprogestins have been largely utilized in reproductive medicine, yet their repositioning for oncologic use is rapidly emerging. In this study we investigated the molecular mediators of the anti-ovarian cancer activity of the structurally related antiprogestins RU-38486, ORG-31710 and CDB-2914. We studied the responses of wt p53 OV2008 and p53 null SK-OV-3 cells to varying doses of RU-38486, ORG-31710 and CDB-2914. The steroids inhibited the growth of both cell lines with a potency of RU-38486 > ORG-31710 > CDB-2914, and were cytostatic at lower doses but lethal at higher concentrations. Antiprogestin-induced lethality associated with morphological features of apoptosis, hypodiploid DNA content, DNA fragmentation, and cleavage of executer caspase substrate PARP. Cell death ensued despite RU-38486 caused transient up-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, ORG-31710 induced transient up-regulation of inhibitor of apoptosis XIAP, and CDB-2914 up-regulated both XIAP and Bcl-2. The antiprogestins induced accumulation of Cdk inhibitors p21cip1 and p27kip1 and increased association of p21cip1 and p27kip1 with Cdk-2. They also promoted nuclear localization of p21cip1 and p27kip1, reduced the nuclear abundances of Cdk-2 and cyclin E, and blocked the activity of Cdk-2 in both nucleus and cytoplasm. The cytotoxic potency of the antiprogestins correlated with the magnitude of the inhibition of Cdk-2 activity, ranging from G1 cell cycle arrest towards cell death. Our results suggest that, as a consequence of their cytostatic and lethal effects, antiprogestin steroids of well-known contraceptive properties emerge as attractive new agents to be repositioned for ovarian cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia A. Goyeneche
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD USA
| | - Erin E. Seidel
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD USA
| | - Carlos M. Telleria
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine of The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD USA
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