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Mechanistic basis for multidrug resistance and collateral drug sensitivity conferred to the malaria parasite by polymorphisms in PfMDR1 and PfCRT. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001616. [PMID: 35507548 PMCID: PMC9067703 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance protein 1 (pfmdr1) gene and the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene alter the malaria parasite’s susceptibility to most of the current antimalarial drugs. However, the precise mechanisms by which PfMDR1 contributes to multidrug resistance have not yet been fully elucidated, nor is it understood why polymorphisms in pfmdr1 and pfcrt that cause chloroquine resistance simultaneously increase the parasite’s susceptibility to lumefantrine and mefloquine—a phenomenon known as collateral drug sensitivity. Here, we present a robust expression system for PfMDR1 in Xenopus oocytes that enables direct and high-resolution biochemical characterizations of the protein. We show that wild-type PfMDR1 transports diverse pharmacons, including lumefantrine, mefloquine, dihydroartemisinin, piperaquine, amodiaquine, methylene blue, and chloroquine (but not the antiviral drug amantadine). Field-derived mutant isoforms of PfMDR1 differ from the wild-type protein, and each other, in their capacities to transport these drugs, indicating that PfMDR1-induced changes in the distribution of drugs between the parasite’s digestive vacuole (DV) and the cytosol are a key driver of both antimalarial resistance and the variability between multidrug resistance phenotypes. Of note, the PfMDR1 isoforms prevalent in chloroquine-resistant isolates exhibit reduced capacities for chloroquine, lumefantrine, and mefloquine transport. We observe the opposite relationship between chloroquine resistance-conferring mutations in PfCRT and drug transport activity. Using our established assays for characterizing PfCRT in the Xenopus oocyte system and in live parasite assays, we demonstrate that these PfCRT isoforms transport all 3 drugs, whereas wild-type PfCRT does not. We present a mechanistic model for collateral drug sensitivity in which mutant isoforms of PfMDR1 and PfCRT cause chloroquine, lumefantrine, and mefloquine to remain in the cytosol instead of sequestering within the DV. This change in drug distribution increases the access of lumefantrine and mefloquine to their primary targets (thought to be located outside of the DV), while simultaneously decreasing chloroquine’s access to its target within the DV. The mechanistic insights presented here provide a basis for developing approaches that extend the useful life span of antimalarials by exploiting the opposing selection forces they exert upon PfCRT and PfMDR1.
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Edgar RCS, Counihan NA, McGowan S, de Koning-Ward TF. Methods Used to Investigate the Plasmodium falciparum Digestive Vacuole. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:829823. [PMID: 35096663 PMCID: PMC8794586 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.829823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria remains a global health problem as parasites continue to develop resistance to all antimalarials in use. Infection causes clinical symptoms during the intra-erythrocytic stage of the lifecycle where the parasite infects and replicates within red blood cells (RBC). During this stage, P. falciparum digests the main constituent of the RBC, hemoglobin, in a specialized acidic compartment termed the digestive vacuole (DV), a process essential for survival. Many therapeutics in use target one or multiple aspects of the DV, with chloroquine and its derivatives, as well as artemisinin, having mechanisms of action within this organelle. In order to better understand how current therapeutics and those under development target DV processes, techniques used to investigate the DV are paramount. This review outlines the involvement of the DV in therapeutics currently in use and focuses on the range of techniques that are currently utilized to study this organelle including microscopy, biochemical analysis, genetic approaches and metabolomic studies. Importantly, continued development and application of these techniques will aid in our understanding of the DV and in the development of new therapeutics or therapeutic partners for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca C. S. Edgar
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Natalie A. Counihan
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- Centre to Impact AMR, Monash University, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Tania F. de Koning-Ward
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
- The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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Broichhagen J, Kilian N. Chemical Biology Tools To Investigate Malaria Parasites. Chembiochem 2021; 22:2219-2236. [PMID: 33570245 PMCID: PMC8360121 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic diseases like malaria tropica have been shaping human evolution and history since the beginning of mankind. After infection, the response of the human host ranges from asymptomatic to severe and may culminate in death. Therefore, proper examination of the parasite's biology is pivotal to deciphering unique molecular, biochemical and cell biological processes, which in turn ensure the identification of treatment strategies, such as potent drug targets and vaccine candidates. However, implementing molecular biology methods for genetic manipulation proves to be difficult for many parasite model organisms. The development of fast and straightforward applicable alternatives, for instance small-molecule probes from the field of chemical biology, is essential. In this review, we will recapitulate the highlights of previous molecular and chemical biology approaches that have already created insight and understanding of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We discuss current developments from the field of chemical biology and explore how their application could advance research into this parasite in the future. We anticipate that the described approaches will help to close knowledge gaps in the biology of P. falciparum and we hope that researchers will be inspired to use these methods to gain knowledge - with the aim of ending this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Broichhagen
- Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Molekulare Pharmakologie (FMP)Robert-Roessle-Strasse 1013125BerlinGermany
| | - Nicole Kilian
- Centre for Infectious DiseasesParasitologyHeidelberg University HospitalIm Neuenheimer Feld 32469120HeidelbergGermany
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Linzke M, Yan SLR, Tárnok A, Ulrich H, Groves MR, Wrenger C. Live and Let Dye: Visualizing the Cellular Compartments of the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cytometry A 2019; 97:694-705. [PMID: 31738009 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the deadliest diseases worldwide and it is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium spp. Parasite visualization is an important tool for the correct detection of malarial cases but also to understand its biology. Advances in visualization techniques promote new insights into the complex life cycle and biology of Plasmodium parasites. Live cell imaging by fluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry are the foundation of the visualization technique for malaria research. In this review, we present an overview of possibilities in live cell imaging of the malaria parasite. We discuss some of the state-of-the-art techniques to visualize organelles and processes of the parasite and discuss limitation and advantages of each technique. © 2019 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen Linzke
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Sun Liu Rei Yan
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Attila Tárnok
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Epidemiology, Medical Faculty, University Leipzig, D-04107, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Structural Biology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9713AV, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
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Woodland JG, Hunter R, Smith PJ, Egan TJ. Shining new light on ancient drugs: preparation and subcellular localisation of novel fluorescent analogues of Cinchona alkaloids in intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 15:589-597. [PMID: 27785512 DOI: 10.1039/c6ob02110g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent derivatives of the archetypal antimalarial quinine and its diastereomer, quinidine, suitable for cellular imaging have been synthesised by attaching the small extrinsic fluorophore, NBD. Interactions of these derivatives with ferriprotoporphyrin IX were evaluated to verify that insights generated by live-cell imaging were relevant to the parent molecules. These analogues are shown by confocal and super-resolution microscopy to accumulate selectively in Plasmodium falciparum. Localisation to the region corresponding to the digestive vacuole supports the putative primary role of these alkaloids as haemozoin inhibitors. Quantitative analysis revealed minimal accumulation within the nucleus, rejecting the disruption of DNA replication as a possible mode of action. While extensive localisation to phospholipid structures and associated organelles was observed, the analogues did not show evidence of association with neutral lipid bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John G Woodland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Roger Hunter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Peter J Smith
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925, South Africa
| | - Timothy J Egan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
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Duval R, Duplais C. Fluorescent natural products as probes and tracers in biology. Nat Prod Rep 2017; 34:161-193. [DOI: 10.1039/c6np00111d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence is a remarkable property of many natural products in addition to their medicinal and biological value. Herein, we provide a review of these peculiar secondary metabolites to stimulate prospecting of them as original fluorescent tracers, endowed with unique photophysical properties and with applications in most fields of biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Duval
- IRD
- UMR 216 IRD MERIT (Mère et Enfant face aux Infections Tropicales)
- Université Paris-Descartes
- 75006 Paris
- France
| | - Christophe Duplais
- CNRS
- UMR 8172 EcoFoG (Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane)
- AgroParisTech
- Cirad
- INRA
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Ng CL, Siciliano G, Lee MCS, de Almeida MJ, Corey VC, Bopp SE, Bertuccini L, Wittlin S, Kasdin RG, Le Bihan A, Clozel M, Winzeler EA, Alano P, Fidock DA. CRISPR-Cas9-modified pfmdr1 protects Plasmodium falciparum asexual blood stages and gametocytes against a class of piperazine-containing compounds but potentiates artemisinin-based combination therapy partner drugs. Mol Microbiol 2016; 101:381-93. [PMID: 27073104 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Emerging resistance to first-line antimalarial combination therapies threatens malaria treatment and the global elimination campaign. Improved therapeutic strategies are required to protect existing drugs and enhance treatment efficacy. We report that the piperazine-containing compound ACT-451840 exhibits single-digit nanomolar inhibition of the Plasmodium falciparum asexual blood stages and transmissible gametocyte forms. Genome sequence analyses of in vitro-derived ACT-451840-resistant parasites revealed single nucleotide polymorphisms in pfmdr1, which encodes a digestive vacuole membrane-bound ATP-binding cassette transporter known to alter P. falciparum susceptibility to multiple first-line antimalarials. CRISPR-Cas9 based gene editing confirmed that PfMDR1 point mutations mediated ACT-451840 resistance. Resistant parasites demonstrated increased susceptibility to the clinical drugs lumefantrine, mefloquine, quinine and amodiaquine. Stage V gametocytes harboring Cas9-introduced pfmdr1 mutations also acquired ACT-451840 resistance. These findings reveal that PfMDR1 mutations can impart resistance to compounds active against asexual blood stages and mature gametocytes. Exploiting PfMDR1 resistance mechanisms provides new opportunities for developing disease-relieving and transmission-blocking antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline L Ng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Giulia Siciliano
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Marcus C S Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Mariana J de Almeida
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Victoria C Corey
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems & Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Selina E Bopp
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems & Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Lucia Bertuccini
- Dipartimento Tecnologie e Salute, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Sergio Wittlin
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rachel G Kasdin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Amélie Le Bihan
- Department of Drug Discovery, Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd., CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Martine Clozel
- Department of Drug Discovery, Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd., CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Elizabeth A Winzeler
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems & Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Pietro Alano
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Parassitarie ed Immunomediate, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
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Tomlins AM, Ben-Rached F, Williams RAM, Proto WR, Coppens I, Ruch U, Gilberger TW, Coombs GH, Mottram JC, Müller S, Langsley G. Plasmodium falciparumATG8 implicated in both autophagy and apicoplast formation. Autophagy 2014; 9:1540-52. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.25832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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A high-content phenotypic screen reveals the disruptive potency of quinacrine and 3',4'-dichlorobenzamil on the digestive vacuole of Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:550-8. [PMID: 24217693 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01441-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the etiological agent of malignant malaria and has been shown to exhibit features resembling programmed cell death. This is triggered upon treatment with low micromolar doses of chloroquine or other lysosomotrophic compounds and is associated with leakage of the digestive vacuole contents. In order to exploit this cell death pathway, we developed a high-content screening method to select compounds that can disrupt the parasite vacuole, as measured by the leakage of intravacuolar Ca(2+). This assay uses the ImageStream 100, an imaging-capable flow cytometer, to assess the distribution of the fluorescent calcium probe Fluo-4. We obtained two hits from a small library of 25 test compounds, quinacrine and 3',4'-dichlorobenzamil. The ability of these compounds to permeabilize the digestive vacuole in laboratory strains and clinical isolates was validated by confocal microscopy. The hits could induce programmed cell death features in both chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant laboratory strains. Quinacrine was effective at inhibiting field isolates in a 48-h reinvasion assay regardless of artemisinin clearance status. We therefore present as proof of concept a phenotypic screening method with the potential to provide mechanistic insights to the activity of antimalarial drugs.
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