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Yan C, Zhao F, Gao S, Liu X, Yu T, Mu Y, Zhang L, Xu J. Observation of the effect of posterior scleral reinforcement combined with orthokeratology and 0.01% atropine in the treatment of congenital myopia: a case report. BMC Ophthalmol 2023; 23:486. [PMID: 38012561 PMCID: PMC10683125 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-023-03211-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myopia has recently emerged as a significant threat to global public health. The high and pathological myopia in children and adolescents could result in irreversible damage to eye tissues and severe impairment of visual function without timely control. Posterior scleral reinforcement (PSR) can effectively control the progression of high myopia by limiting posterior scleral expansion, improving retrobulbar vascular perfusion, thereby stabilizing the axial length and refraction of the eye. Moreover, orthokeratology and low concentrations of atropine are also effective in slowing myopia progression. CASE PRESENTATION A female child was diagnosed with binocular congenital myopia and amblyopia at the age of 3 and the patient's vision had never been rectified with spectacles at the first consultation. The patient's ophthalmological findings suggested, high refractive error with low best corrected visual acuity, longer axial length beyond the standard level of her age, and fundus examination suggesting posterior scleral staphyloma with weakened hemodynamics of the posterior ciliary artery. Thereby, PSR was performed to improve fundus health and the combination of orthokeratology and 0.01% atropine were performed to control the development of myopia. Following up to 8 years of clinical treatment and observations, the progression of myopia could be well controlled and fundus health was stable. CONCLUSION In this report, 8-year of clinical observation indicated that PSR could improve choroidal thickness and hemodynamic parameters of the retrobulbar vessels, postoperative orthokeratology combined with 0.01% atropine treatment strategy may be a good choice for myopia control effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxiao Yan
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Fangkun Zhao
- The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Shang Gao
- The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Taorui Yu
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Yanan Mu
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Lijun Zhang
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
| | - Jun Xu
- The Third People's Hospital of Dalian, Dalian Municipal Eye Hospital, Dalian Municipal Cancer Hospital, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases, Liaoning Provincial Optometry Technology Engineering Research Center, Dalian, Liaoning, China.
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Dong X, Zhang X, Liu P, Tian Y, Li L, Gong P. Lipolysis-Stimulated Lipoprotein Receptor Impairs Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Inhibits the Oncogenic Activity of YAP1 via PPPY Motif. Front Oncol 2022; 12:896412. [PMID: 35586495 PMCID: PMC9108500 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.896412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is a type I single-pass transmembrane protein which is mainly expressed in the liver. In this study, we investigated if and how LSR is involved in the carcinogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Experimental Design To evaluate if LSR was abnormally expressed in human HCC tissues, and how its expression was associated with the survival probability of patients, we obtained data from Gene Expression Omnibus and The Cancer Genome Atlas Program. To investigate if and how LSR regulates tumor growth, we knocked down and overexpressed LSR in human HCC cell lines. In addition, to evaluate the interaction between LSR and yes-associated protein1 (YAP1), we mutated LSR at PPPY motif, a binding site of YAP1. Results Totally, 454 patients were enrolled in the present study, and high expression of LSR significantly decreased the probability of death. Knockdown of LSR significantly increased the expansion of HCC cells and significantly promoted tumor growth. In addition, downregulation of LSR increased the nuclear accumulation and transcriptional function of YAP1. Conversely, overexpression of LSR impairs this function of YAP1 and phosphorylates YAP1 at serine 127. Of note, mutation of LSR at the PPPY motif could block the interaction between LSR and YAP1, and restore the transcriptional ability of YAP1. Conclusions The present study suggests that LSR binds to YAP1 via the PPPY motif. Thus, LSR increases the phosphorylation of YAP1 and impairs the growth of HCC. This highlights that targeting LSR might be a promising therapeutic strategy for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Dong
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xianbin Zhang
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yu Tian
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Li Li
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Peng Gong
- Department of General Surgery & Institute of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Tumors, Shenzhen University General Hospital & Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
- Carson International Cancer Center & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Shenzhen University Health Science Center, Shenzhen, China
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3
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Cook ME, Varney KM, Godoy-Ruiz R, Weber DJ. 1H N, 13C, and 15N resonance assignments of the Clostridioides difficile receptor binding domain 2 (CDTb, residues 757-876). BIOMOLECULAR NMR ASSIGNMENTS 2021; 15:35-39. [PMID: 33034833 PMCID: PMC7973916 DOI: 10.1007/s12104-020-09979-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is a bacterial pathogen responsible for the majority of nosocomial infections in the developed world. C. difficile infection (CDI) is difficult to treat in many cases because hypervirulent strains have evolved that contain a third toxin, termed the C. difficile toxin (CDT), in addition to the two enterotoxins TcdA and TcdB. CDT is a binary toxin comprised of an enzymatic, ADP-ribosyltransferase (ART) toxin component, CDTa, and a pore-forming or delivery subunit, CDTb. In the absence of CDTa, CDTb assembles into two distinct di-heptameric states, a symmetric and an asymmetric form with both states having two surface-accessible host cell receptor-binding domains, termed RBD1 and RBD2. RBD1 has a unique amino acid sequence, when aligned to other well-studied binary toxins (i.e., anthrax), and it contains a novel Ca2+-binding site important for CDTb stability. The other receptor binding domain, RBD2, is critically important for CDT toxicity, and a domain such as this is missing altogether in other binary toxins and shows further that CDT is unique when compared to other binary toxins. In this study, the 1H, 13C, and 15N backbone and sidechain resonances of the 120 amino acid RBD2 domain of CDTb (residues 757-876) were assigned sequence-specifically and provide a framework for future NMR-based drug discovery studies directed towards targeting the most virulent strains of CDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Cook
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene St., Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Kristen M Varney
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene St., Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Raquel Godoy-Ruiz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene St., Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - David J Weber
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene St., Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
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4
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Tang X, Zhou Y, Liu Y, Zhang W, Liu C, Yan C. Potentiation of cancerous progression by LISCH7 via direct stimulation of TGFB1 transcription in triple-negative breast cancer. J Cell Biochem 2020; 121:4642-4653. [PMID: 32048750 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.29679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
As an aggressive breast cancer (BCa) subtype, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) responses poorly to chemotherapy and endocrine therapy, and usually has a worse prognosis. This is largely due to the lack of specific therapeutic targets, laying claim to an imperious demand to clarify the key signaling pathways potentiating TNBC progression. Herein, we report that expression levels of the liver-specific bHLH-Zip transcription factor (LISCH7), a recently identified key player in cancerous progression, preferentially enriched in TNBC in comparison with other BCa subtypes, and this upregulation was observed to be correlated to a poor survival outcome in patients with TNBC. Ablation of LISCH7 in TNBC cells impaired cell proliferation, reduced cell invasiveness, and enhanced sensitivity to the first-line chemotherapeutic drug docetaxel at both in vitro and in vivo levels. Importantly, concurrent induction of TGFB1, the gene encoding transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), an essential multipluripotent regulator of TNBC, was accompanied with these alterations in cancerous properties. We further showed that LISCH7 could directly bind to the TGFB1 promoter and stimulate TGFB1 transcription in TNBC cells. The recruitment of LISCH7 onto the TGFB1 chromatin and transactivation of TGFB1 were substantially augmented by treatment with the exogenous TGF-β1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Collectively, these findings suggest that LISCH7 and TGF-β1 form a reciprocal positive regulatory loop and cooperatively regulate cancerous progression in TNBC cells. Thus, simultaneous inhibition of both LISCH7 and TGF-β1 signaling may represent a more effective approach to counteract advanced TNBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojiang Tang
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yuhui Zhou
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Changyou Yan
- Compositive Sector, Health and Family Planning Commission of Chengcheng County, Weinan, China
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5
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Xu X, Godoy-Ruiz R, Adipietro KA, Peralta C, Ben-Hail D, Varney KM, Cook ME, Roth BM, Wilder PT, Cleveland T, Grishaev A, Neu HM, Michel SLJ, Yu W, Beckett D, Rustandi RR, Lancaster C, Loughney JW, Kristopeit A, Christanti S, Olson JW, MacKerell AD, Georges AD, Pozharski E, Weber DJ. Structure of the cell-binding component of the Clostridium difficile binary toxin reveals a di-heptamer macromolecular assembly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:1049-1058. [PMID: 31896582 PMCID: PMC6969506 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1919490117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Targeting Clostridium difficile infection is challenging because treatment options are limited, and high recurrence rates are common. One reason for this is that hypervirulent C. difficile strains often have a binary toxin termed the C. difficile toxin, in addition to the enterotoxins TsdA and TsdB. The C. difficile toxin has an enzymatic component, termed CDTa, and a pore-forming or delivery subunit termed CDTb. CDTb was characterized here using a combination of single-particle cryoelectron microscopy, X-ray crystallography, NMR, and other biophysical methods. In the absence of CDTa, 2 di-heptamer structures for activated CDTb (1.0 MDa) were solved at atomic resolution, including a symmetric (SymCDTb; 3.14 Å) and an asymmetric form (AsymCDTb; 2.84 Å). Roles played by 2 receptor-binding domains of activated CDTb were of particular interest since the receptor-binding domain 1 lacks sequence homology to any other known toxin, and the receptor-binding domain 2 is completely absent in other well-studied heptameric toxins (i.e., anthrax). For AsymCDTb, a Ca2+ binding site was discovered in the first receptor-binding domain that is important for its stability, and the second receptor-binding domain was found to be critical for host cell toxicity and the di-heptamer fold for both forms of activated CDTb. Together, these studies represent a starting point for developing structure-based drug-design strategies to target the most severe strains of C. difficile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingjian Xu
- City University of New York Advanced Science Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
- PhD Program in Biochemistry, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
| | - Raquel Godoy-Ruiz
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Kaylin A Adipietro
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Christopher Peralta
- City University of New York Advanced Science Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
| | - Danya Ben-Hail
- City University of New York Advanced Science Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
| | - Kristen M Varney
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Mary E Cook
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Braden M Roth
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Paul T Wilder
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | | | | | - Heather M Neu
- University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Sarah L J Michel
- University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Wenbo Yu
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Alexander D MacKerell
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
- University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - Amedee des Georges
- City University of New York Advanced Science Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017;
- PhD Program in Biochemistry, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
- PhD Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031
| | - Edwin Pozharski
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201;
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
| | - David J Weber
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201;
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, Rockville, MD 20850
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics, The University of Maryland School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201
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6
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Barrow MA, Martin ME, Coffey A, Andrews PL, Jones GS, Reaves DK, Parker JS, Troester MA, Fleming JM. A functional role for the cancer disparity-linked genes, CRYβB2 and CRYβB2P1, in the promotion of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2019; 21:105. [PMID: 31511085 PMCID: PMC6739962 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-019-1191-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the USA, the breast cancer mortality rate is 41% higher for African-American women than non-Hispanic White women. While numerous gene expression studies have classified biological features that vary by race and may contribute to poorer outcomes, few studies have experimentally tested these associations. CRYβB2 gene expression has drawn particular interest because of its association with overall survival and African-American ethnicity in multiple cancers. Several reports indicate that overexpression of the CRYβB2 pseudogene, CRYβB2P1, and not CRYβB2 is linked with race and poor outcome. It remains unclear whether either or both genes are linked to breast cancer outcomes. This study investigates CRYβB2 and CRYβB2P1 expression in human breast cancers and breast cancer cell line models, with the goal of elucidating the mechanistic contribution of CRYβB2 and CRYβB2P1 to racial disparities. Methods Custom scripts for CRYβB2 or CRYβB2P1 were generated and used to identify reads that uniquely aligned to either gene. Gene expression according to race and tumor subtype were assessed using all available TCGA breast cancer RNA sequencing alignment samples (n = 1221). In addition, triple-negative breast cancer models engineered to have each gene overexpressed or knocked out were developed and evaluated by in vitro, biochemical, and in vivo assays to identify biological functions. Results We provide evidence that CRYβB2P1 is expressed at higher levels in breast tumors compared to CRYβB2, but only CRYβB2P1 is significantly increased in African-American tumors relative to White American tumors. We show that independent of CRYβB2, CRYβB2P1 enhances tumorigenesis in vivo via promoting cell proliferation. Our data also reveal that CRYβB2P1 may function as a non-coding RNA to regulate CRYβB2 expression. A key observation is that the combined overexpression of both genes was found to suppress cell growth. CRYβB2 overexpression in triple-negative breast cancers increases invasive cellular behaviors, tumor growth, IL6 production, immune cell chemoattraction, and the expression of metastasis-associated genes. These data underscore that both CRYβB2 and CRYβB2P1 promote tumor growth, but their mechanisms for tumor promotion are likely distinct. Conclusions Our findings provide novel data emphasizing the need to distinguish and study the biological effects of both CRYβB2 and CRYβB2P1 as both genes independently promote tumor progression. Our data demonstrate novel molecular mechanisms of two understudied, disparity-linked molecules. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13058-019-1191-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya A Barrow
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Mary Townes Science Complex, Durham, NC, 27707, USA
| | - Megan E Martin
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Mary Townes Science Complex, Durham, NC, 27707, USA
| | - Alisha Coffey
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Portia L Andrews
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Mary Townes Science Complex, Durham, NC, 27707, USA
| | - Gieira S Jones
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Denise K Reaves
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Mary Townes Science Complex, Durham, NC, 27707, USA
| | - Joel S Parker
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Melissa A Troester
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jodie M Fleming
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Mary Townes Science Complex, Durham, NC, 27707, USA. .,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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7
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Sugase T, Takahashi T, Serada S, Fujimoto M, Ohkawara T, Hiramatsu K, Koh M, Saito Y, Tanaka K, Miyazaki Y, Makino T, Kurokawa Y, Yamasaki M, Nakajima K, Hanazaki K, Mori M, Doki Y, Naka T. Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor overexpression is a novel predictor of poor clinical prognosis and a potential therapeutic target in gastric cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 9:32917-32928. [PMID: 30250639 PMCID: PMC6152476 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of patients with advanced gastric cancer (GC) remains poor despite the recent advances in molecular targeted therapies, and the search for biomarkers that can predict prognosis and additional new agents with acceptable toxicity profiles are needed. Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is a lipoprotein receptor that binds to triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and related to some malignancies. Herein, we examined the association between LSR expression and the prognosis of patients with GC, and investigated the antitumor effect of a previously developed anti-human LSR monoclonal antibody (#1-25). We first performed immunohistochemical analysis of LSR protein expression in GC and normal tissues, and then examined its association with the prognosis of 110 patients with GC. LSR was overexpressed in most of primary GC and metastatic tumors, but not in normal tissues. Patients with strong LSR expression (N = 80, 72.7%) had significantly poorer overall survival (OS) than those with weak expression (P = 0.017). Multivariate analysis identified strong LSR (as well as pT) as independent and significant prognostic factors for OS. Next, we demonstrated that very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) treatment increases cell proliferation in LSR-expressing GC cell lines in vitro; LSR inhibition using #1-25 inhibited VLDL-induced proliferation by suppressing JAK/STAT and PI3K signaling. In vivo, we demonstrated a marked antitumor effect of #1-25 in 2 distinct GC cell line xenograft mice models. Our findings suggest that LSR plays a key functional role in GC development, and that this antigen can be therapeutically targeted to improve GC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahito Sugase
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan.,Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan.,Department of Surgery, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Takahashi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Satoshi Serada
- Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
| | - Minoru Fujimoto
- Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
| | - Tomoharu Ohkawara
- Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
| | - Kosuke Hiramatsu
- Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
| | - Masahiro Koh
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yurina Saito
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Koji Tanaka
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Miyazaki
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Tomoki Makino
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yukinori Kurokawa
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Makoto Yamasaki
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Kiyokazu Nakajima
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | | | - Masaki Mori
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Doki
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Tetsuji Naka
- Center for Intractable Immune Disease, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan
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8
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Beer LA, Tatge H, Schneider C, Ruschig M, Hust M, Barton J, Thiemann S, Fühner V, Russo G, Gerhard R. The Binary Toxin CDT of Clostridium difficile as a Tool for Intracellular Delivery of Bacterial Glucosyltransferase Domains. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10060225. [PMID: 29865182 PMCID: PMC6024811 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10060225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Binary toxins are produced by several pathogenic bacteria. Examples are the C2 toxin from Clostridium botulinum, the iota toxin from Clostridium perfringens, and the CDT from Clostridium difficile. All these binary toxins have ADP-ribosyltransferases (ADPRT) as their enzymatically active component that modify monomeric actin in their target cells. The binary C2 toxin was intensively described as a tool for intracellular delivery of allogenic ADPRTs. Here, we firstly describe the binary toxin CDT from C. difficile as an effective tool for heterologous intracellular delivery. Even 60 kDa glucosyltransferase domains of large clostridial glucosyltransferases can be delivered into cells. The glucosyltransferase domains of five tested large clostridial glucosyltransferases were successfully introduced into cells as chimeric fusions to the CDTa adapter domain (CDTaN). Cell uptake was demonstrated by the analysis of cell morphology, cytoskeleton staining, and intracellular substrate glucosylation. The fusion toxins were functional only when the adapter domain of CDTa was N-terminally located, according to its native orientation. Thus, like other binary toxins, the CDTaN/b system can be used for standardized delivery systems not only for bacterial ADPRTs but also for a variety of bacterial glucosyltransferase domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara-Antonia Beer
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Helma Tatge
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Carmen Schneider
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Maximilian Ruschig
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Michael Hust
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Jessica Barton
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Stefan Thiemann
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Viola Fühner
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Giulio Russo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Ralf Gerhard
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
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9
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Czulkies BA, Mastroianni J, Lutz L, Lang S, Schwan C, Schmidt G, Lassmann S, Zeiser R, Aktories K, Papatheodorou P. Loss of LSR affects epithelial barrier integrity and tumor xenograft growth of CaCo-2 cells. Oncotarget 2018; 8:37009-37022. [PMID: 27391068 PMCID: PMC5514888 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is a lipoprotein receptor, serves as host receptor for clostridial iota-like toxins and is involved in the formation of tricellular contacts. Of particular interest is the role of LSR in progression of various cancers. Here we aimed to study the tumor growth of LSR-deficient colon carcinoma-derived cell lines HCT116 and CaCo-2 in a mouse xenograft model. Whereas knockout of LSR had no effect on tumor growth of HCT116 cells, we observed that CaCo-2 LSR knockout tumors grew to a smaller size than their wild-type counterparts. Histological analysis revealed increased apoptotic and necrotic cell death in a tumor originating from LSR-deficient CaCo-2 cells. LSR-deficient CaCo-2 cells exhibited increased cell proliferation in vitro and an altered epithelial morphology with impaired targeting of tricellulin to tricellular contacts. In addition, loss of LSR reduced the transepithelial electrical resistance of CaCo-2 cell monolayers and increased permeability for small molecules. Moreover, LSR-deficient CaCo-2 cells formed larger cysts in 3D culture than their wild-type counterparts. Our study provides evidence that LSR affects epithelial morphology and barrier formation in CaCo-2 cells and examines for the first time the effects of LSR deficiency on the tumor growth properties of colon carcinoma-derived cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd A Czulkies
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany
| | - Justin Mastroianni
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center, ALU, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Lutz
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, ALU, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Lang
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Schwan
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gudula Schmidt
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany
| | - Silke Lassmann
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center, ALU, Freiburg, Germany.,German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (BIOSS), ALU, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robert Zeiser
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center, ALU, Freiburg, Germany.,Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (BIOSS), ALU, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Aktories
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany.,Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (BIOSS), ALU, Freiburg, Germany.,Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS), ALU, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Panagiotis Papatheodorou
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University (ALU), Freiburg, Germany.,Present address: Institute of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.,Present address: Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
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10
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Shimada H, Satohisa S, Kohno T, Takahashi S, Hatakeyama T, Konno T, Tsujiwaki M, Saito T, Kojima T. The roles of tricellular tight junction protein lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor in malignancy of human endometrial cancer cells. Oncotarget 2017; 7:27735-52. [PMID: 27036040 PMCID: PMC5053684 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) has been identified as a novel molecular constituent of tricellular contacts that have a barrier function for the cellular sheet. LSR recruits tricellulin (TRIC), which is the first molecular component of tricellular tight junctions. Knockdown of LSR increases cell motility and invasion of certain cancer cells. However, the behavior and the roles of LSR in endometrial cancer remain unknown. In the present study, we investigated the behavior and roles of LSR in normal and endometrial cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. In endometriosis and endometrial cancer, LSR was observed not only in the subapical region but also throughout the lateral region as well as in normal endometrial epithelial cells in the secretory phase, and LSR in the cancer was reduced in correlation with the malignancy. Knockdown of LSR by the siRNA in cells of the endometrial cancer cell line Sawano, induced cell migration, invasion and proliferation, while TRIC relocalized from the tricellular region to the bicellular region at the membrane. In Sawano cells and normal HEEs, a decrease of LSR induced by leptin and an increase of LSR induced by adiponectin and the drugs for type 2 diabetes metformin and berberine were observed via distinct signaling pathways including JAK2/STAT. In Sawano cells, metformin and berberine prevented cell migration and invasion induced by downregulation of LSR by the siRNA and leptin treatment. The dissection of the mechanism in the downregulation of endometrial LSR during obesity is important in developing new diagnostic and therapy for endometrial cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Shimada
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan.,Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Seiro Satohisa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kohno
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Syunta Takahashi
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tsubasa Hatakeyama
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takumi Konno
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Tsujiwaki
- Department of Pathology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Saito
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takashi Kojima
- Department of Cell Science, Research Institute for Frontier Medicine, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
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11
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Hiramatsu K, Serada S, Enomoto T, Takahashi Y, Nakagawa S, Nojima S, Morimoto A, Matsuzaki S, Yokoyama T, Takahashi T, Fujimoto M, Takemori H, Ueda Y, Yoshino K, Morii E, Kimura T, Naka T. LSR Antibody Therapy Inhibits Ovarian Epithelial Tumor Growth by Inhibiting Lipid Uptake. Cancer Res 2017; 78:516-527. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-17-0910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Reaves DK, Hoadley KA, Fagan-Solis KD, Jima DD, Bereman M, Thorpe L, Hicks J, McDonald D, Troester MA, Perou CM, Fleming JM. Nuclear Localized LSR: A Novel Regulator of Breast Cancer Behavior and Tumorigenesis. Mol Cancer Res 2017; 15:165-178. [PMID: 27856957 PMCID: PMC5290211 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-16-0085-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) has been found in the plasma membrane and is believed to function in lipoprotein endocytosis and tight junctions. Given the impact of cellular metabolism and junction signaling pathways on tumor phenotypes and patient outcome, it is important to understand how LSR cellular localization mediates its functions. We conducted localization studies, evaluated DNA binding, and examined the effects of nuclear LSR in cells, xenografts, and clinical specimens. We found LSR within the membrane, cytoplasm, and the nucleus of breast cancer cells representing multiple intrinsic subtypes. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) showed direct binding of LSR to DNA, and sequence analysis identified putative functional motifs and post-translational modifications of the LSR protein. While neither overexpression of transcript variants, nor pharmacologic manipulation of post-translational modification significantly altered localization, inhibition of nuclear export enhanced nuclear localization, suggesting a mechanism for nuclear retention. Coimmunoprecipitation and proximal ligation assays indicated LSR-pericentrin interactions, presenting potential mechanisms for nuclear-localized LSR. The clinical significance of LSR was evaluated using data from over 1,100 primary breast tumors, which showed high LSR levels in basal-like tumors and tumors from African-Americans. In tumors histosections, nuclear localization was significantly associated with poor outcomes. Finally, in vivo xenograft studies revealed that basal-like breast cancer cells that overexpress LSR exhibited both membrane and nuclear localization, and developed tumors with 100% penetrance, while control cells lacking LSR developed no tumors. These results show that nuclear LSR alters gene expression and may promote aggressive cancer phenotypes. IMPLICATIONS LSR functions in the promotion of aggressive breast cancer phenotypes and poor patient outcome via differential subcellular localization to alter cell signaling, bioenergetics, and gene expression. Mol Cancer Res; 15(2); 165-78. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise K Reaves
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Katherine A Hoadley
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Katerina D Fagan-Solis
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Dereje D Jima
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Michael Bereman
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Lynnelle Thorpe
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Jyla Hicks
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - David McDonald
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Melissa A Troester
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Charles M Perou
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Jodie M Fleming
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina.
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
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13
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Stiles BG, Pradhan K, Fleming JM, Samy RP, Barth H, Popoff MR. Clostridium and bacillus binary enterotoxins: bad for the bowels, and eukaryotic being. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:2626-56. [PMID: 25198129 PMCID: PMC4179152 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6092626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Some pathogenic spore-forming bacilli employ a binary protein mechanism for intoxicating the intestinal tracts of insects, animals, and humans. These Gram-positive bacteria and their toxins include Clostridium botulinum (C2 toxin), Clostridium difficile (C. difficile toxin or CDT), Clostridium perfringens (ι-toxin and binary enterotoxin, or BEC), Clostridium spiroforme (C. spiroforme toxin or CST), as well as Bacillus cereus (vegetative insecticidal protein or VIP). These gut-acting proteins form an AB complex composed of ADP-ribosyl transferase (A) and cell-binding (B) components that intoxicate cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis and endosomal trafficking. Once inside the cytosol, the A components inhibit normal cell functions by mono-ADP-ribosylation of globular actin, which induces cytoskeletal disarray and death. Important aspects of each bacterium and binary enterotoxin will be highlighted in this review, with particular focus upon the disease process involving the biochemistry and modes of action for each toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley G Stiles
- Biology Department, Wilson College, 1015 Philadelphia Avenue, Chambersburg, PA 17201, USA.
| | - Kisha Pradhan
- Environmental Science Department, Wilson College, 1015 Philadelphia Avenue, Chambersburg, PA 17201, USA.
| | - Jodie M Fleming
- Department of Biology, North Carolina Central University, 1801 Fayetteville Street, Durham, NC 27707, USA.
| | - Ramar Perumal Samy
- Venom and Toxin Research Programme, Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge 117597, Singapore.
| | - Holger Barth
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, Ulm D-89081, Germany.
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Bacteries Anaerobies et Toxines, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France.
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