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Li Z, Zhang W, Gao F, Tang Q, Kang D, Shen Y. Different Complement Activation Pathways Underly Cognitive Impairment and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Combined With Cognitive Impairment. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:810335. [PMID: 35370615 PMCID: PMC8967361 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.810335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The immune response and the complement system are associated with cognitive impairment and diabetes mellitus, respectively. Activation of the complement system in these diseases occurs mainly through either the classical pathway or the alternative pathway. However, the specific complement proteins involved in the development of the type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cognitive impairment are still unclear. Here, we investigated complement proteins in serum from patients with T2DM, cognitive impairment, or both T2DM and cognitive impairment. Objective To investigate the levels of serum immune complement proteins in patients with T2DM, cognitive impairment, or T2DM combined with cognitive impairment and the associations between these complement proteins and risk factors for T2DM or cognitive impairment. Methods Clinical markers were collected from blood samples of 264 participants. Luminex multiplex assays were used to detect serum complement proteins. All statistical analyses were performed using Prism or R studio. Results There was a difference in serum levels of the complement proteins C1q, C3, C3b, and FH between the three different groups. Hyperglycemia was significantly correlated with elevated C3b or reduced C3, C1q, and FH. In addition, hyperlipidemia was positively correlated with elevated levels of C3, C4, C1q, and FH proteins. There was an association between C1q, C3, C4, and FH and β-pancreas cell function, whereas only FH was associated with insulin resistance. Higher serum C1q was significantly associated with an increased risk of cognitive impairment. Conclusion Serum levels of complement proteins were closely associated with hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. We found that classical complement pathway activation mainly occurred in the cognitive impairment only group, whereas the alternative pathway may reflect T2DM and T2DM with cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenxing Li
- Department of Neurology and Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Neurology and Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Neurodegenerative Disorder Research Center, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Qiqiang Tang
- Department of Neurology and Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- *Correspondence: Yong Shen,
| | - Dongmei Kang
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- *Correspondence: Yong Shen,
| | - Yong Shen
- Department of Neurology and Institute on Aging and Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Neurodegenerative Disorder Research Center, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- *Correspondence: Yong Shen,
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Naproxen as a potential candidate for promoting rivastigmine anti-Alzheimer activity against aluminum chloride-prompted Alzheimer's-like disease in rats; neurogenesis and apoptosis modulation as a possible underlying mechanism. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 915:174695. [PMID: 34914971 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the leading causes of dependence and disability among the elderly worldwide. The traditional anti-Alzheimer medication, rivastigmine, one of the cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs), fails to achieve a definitive cure. We tested the hypothesis that naproxen administration to the rivastigmine-treated aluminum chloride (AlCl3) Alzheimer's rat model could provide an additive neuroprotective effect compared to rivastigmine alone. MATERIALS AND METHODS The studied groups were control (Cont), AlCl3 treated (Al), rivastigmine treated (RIVA), naproxen treated (Napro), and combined rivastigmine and naproxen treated (RIVA + Napro). Rats' memory, spatial learning, and cognitive behavior were assessed followed by evaluation of hippocampal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Hippocampal and cerebellar histopathology were thoroughly examined. Activated caspase-3 and the neuroepithelial stem cells marker; nestin expressions were immunohistochemically assayed. RESULTS AD rats displayed significantly impaired memory and cognitive function, augmented hippocampal AChE activity; massive neurodegeneration associated with enhanced astrogliosis, apoptosis, and impaired neurogenesis. Except for the enhancement of neurogenesis and suppression of apoptosis, the combination therapy had no additional neuroprotective benefit over rivastigmine-only therapy. CONCLUSION Naproxen's efficacy was established by its ability to function at the cellular level, improved neurogenesis, and decreased, apoptosis without having an additional mitigating impact on cognitive impairment in rivastigmine-treated AD rats.
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Ahmed GAR, El Hotaby W, Abbas L, Sherif HHA, Kamel G, Khalil SKH. Synchrotron Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (sFTIRM) analysis of Al-induced Alzheimer's disease in rat brain cortical tissue. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 239:118421. [PMID: 32473558 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.118421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Aluminium (Al) is reported to promote beta amyloid (Aβ) aggregation, free radical production and disturb acetylcholine metabolism leading to cognitive dysfunction that are strongly associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we utilized synchrotron Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (sFTIRM) to analyse the fine structure of proteins and lipids in the rat cortical brain tissues in response to AlCl3 toxicity and Lepidium sativum (LS) treatment after 42 and 65 days. For statistical analysis, we used principal component analysis (PCA). Our results showed profusion of gauche rotomers form in membrane lipid acyl chains that increases the membrane fluidity and disorder only in AD group indicated by the detected sνCH2 band shift to higher frequency. All half bands width (HBW) values of the decomposed amide I band showed marked decrease in AD group compared to the other tested groups, together with an increase in the amounts of β-sheets (1641 cm-1) protein and random coil structure (1654 cm-1). These were indicated by a drastic increase in the percentage areas ratios of (1638 cm-1/1654 cm-1) and (1641 cm-1/1654 cm-1) that may be attributed to a stronger the hydrogen bonds that stabilize the protein conformational structure and/or the increase of the β-strand length due to misfolded Aβ formation in response to Al toxicity through transit phase/phases dominated by random coil structure. In curative group, LS treatment reversed these changes and restored the protein and lipid integrities. To conclude, sFTIRM is a powerful tool that shed light on the biomolecular structure of AD-like cortical brain tissue and considered the therapeutic potential of LS as a promising natural AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gehan A-R Ahmed
- Spectroscopy Dept., Physics Division, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (Former El Tahrir St.) Dokki, P.O. Box 12622, Giza, Egypt.
| | - W El Hotaby
- Spectroscopy Dept., Physics Division, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (Former El Tahrir St.) Dokki, P.O. Box 12622, Giza, Egypt
| | - Lamyaa Abbas
- Spectroscopy Dept., Physics Division, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (Former El Tahrir St.) Dokki, P.O. Box 12622, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hadeer H A Sherif
- Spectroscopy Dept., Physics Division, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (Former El Tahrir St.) Dokki, P.O. Box 12622, Giza, Egypt
| | - Gihan Kamel
- SESAME (Synchroton Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East), Jordan; Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Safaa K H Khalil
- Spectroscopy Dept., Physics Division, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St. (Former El Tahrir St.) Dokki, P.O. Box 12622, Giza, Egypt
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Stilling RM, Benito E, Gertig M, Barth J, Capece V, Burkhardt S, Bonn S, Fischer A. De-regulation of gene expression and alternative splicing affects distinct cellular pathways in the aging hippocampus. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:373. [PMID: 25431548 PMCID: PMC4230043 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is accompanied by gradually increasing impairment of cognitive abilities and constitutes the main risk factor of neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's disease (AD). The underlying mechanisms are however not well understood. Here we analyze the hippocampal transcriptome of young adult mice and two groups of mice at advanced age using RNA sequencing. This approach enabled us to test differential expression of coding and non-coding transcripts, as well as differential splicing and RNA editing. We report a specific age-associated gene expression signature that is associated with major genetic risk factors for late-onset AD (LOAD). This signature is dominated by neuroinflammatory processes, specifically activation of the complement system at the level of increased gene expression, while de-regulation of neuronal plasticity appears to be mediated by compromised RNA splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman M Stilling
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen Göttingen, Germany ; Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Eva Benito
- Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Gertig
- Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jonas Barth
- Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Vincenzo Capece
- Research Group for Computational Analysis of Biological Networks, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Susanne Burkhardt
- Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Bonn
- Research Group for Computational Analysis of Biological Networks, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andre Fischer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Göttingen Göttingen, Germany ; Research Group for Epigenetics in Neurodegenerative Diseases, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Göttingen Göttingen, Germany
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Altered Levels of Amyloid Precursor Protein Intracellular Domain-interacting Proteins in Alzheimer Disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2014; 28:283-90. [DOI: 10.1097/wad.0000000000000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gong B, Pan Y, Zhao W, Knable L, Vempati P, Begum S, Ho L, Wang J, Yemul S, Barnum S, Bilski A, Gong BY, Pasinetti GM. IVIG immunotherapy protects against synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease through complement anaphylatoxin C5a-mediated AMPA-CREB-C/EBP signaling pathway. Mol Immunol 2013; 56:619-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Loeffler DA. Intravenous immunoglobulin and Alzheimer's disease: what now? J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:70. [PMID: 23735288 PMCID: PMC3720252 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-10-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) products are prepared from purified plasma immunoglobulins from large numbers of healthy donors. Pilot studies with the IVIG preparations Octagam and Gammagard in individuals with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease (AD) suggested stabilization of cognitive functioning in these patients, and a phase II trial with Gammagard reported similar findings. However, subsequent reports from Octagam’s phase II trial and Gammagard’s phase III trial found no evidence for slowing of AD progression. Although these recent disappointing results have reduced enthusiasm for IVIG as a possible treatment for AD, it is premature to draw final conclusions; a phase III AD trial with the IVIG product Flebogamma is still in progress. IVIG was the first attempt to use multiple antibodies to treat AD. This approach should be preferable to administration of single monoclonal antibodies in view of the multiple processes that are thought to contribute to AD neuropathology. Development of “AD-specific” preparations with higher concentrations of selected human antibodies and perhaps modified in other ways (such as increasing their anti-inflammatory effects and/or ability to cross the blood–brain barrier) should be considered. Such preparations, if generated with recombinant technology, could overcome the problems of high cost and limited supplies, which have been major concerns relating to the possible widespread use of IVIG in AD patients. This review summarizes the recent AD IVIG trials and discusses the major issues relating to possible use of IVIG for treating AD, as well as the critical questions which remain.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Loeffler
- Department of Neurology Research, William Beaumont Hospital Research Institute, Beaumont Health System, 3811 West Thirteen Mile Road, Royal Oak, MI 48073, USA.
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Schwab C, Klegeris A, McGeer PL. Inflammation in transgenic mouse models of neurodegenerative disorders. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2009; 1802:889-902. [PMID: 19883753 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2009] [Revised: 10/09/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Much evidence is available that inflammation contributes to the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Our review investigates how well current mouse models reflect this aspect of the pathogenesis. Transgenic models of AD have been available for several years and are the most extensively studied. Modulation of cytokine levels, activation of microglia and, to a lesser extent, activation of the complement system have been reported. Mouse models of PD and HD so far show less evidence for the involvement of inflammation. An increasing number of transgenic mouse strains is being created to model human neurodegenerative diseases. A perfect model should reflect all aspects of a disease. It is important to evaluate continuously the models for their match with the human disease and reevaluate them in light of new findings in human patients. Although none of the transgenic mouse models recapitulates all aspects of the human disorder they represent, all models have provided valuable information on basic molecular pathways. In particular, the mouse models of Alzheimer disease have also led to the development of new therapeutic strategies such as vaccination and modulation of microglial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Schwab
- Department of Psychiatry, Kinsmen Laboratory of Neurological Research, University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z3, Canada.
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Wick JY, Zanni GR. Search for Solutions: Animal Models of Disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 21:364-72, 377-8. [PMID: 16824001 DOI: 10.4140/tcp.n.2006.364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Disease researchers use animal models to study potential etiologies, pathophysiologies, and treatments. Responsive models must be predictable, emulating human conditions, and produce results that can be extrapolated and transposed. These models are often better than in vitro study or computer models, but still have limitations. Animal models can be difficult to maintain and are usually quite costly. Numerous methods are used to develop animal models including chemical exposure, genetic "knockout or knock in," or forward genetic modeling. Recently, more accurate animal models of Alzheimer's disease, osteoporosis, cancer, and mental illness have been developed. The strengths and limitations of each are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannette Y Wick
- National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Abstract
As a disease model, the laboratory rat has contributed enormously to neuroscience research over the years. It has also been a popular animal model for Alzheimer's disease but its popularity has diminished during the last decade, as techniques for genetic manipulation in rats have lagged behind that of mice. In recent years, the rat has been making a comeback as an Alzheimer's disease model and the appearance of increasing numbers of transgenic rats will be a welcome and valuable complement to the existing mouse models. This review summarizes the contributions and current status of the rat as an animal model of Alzheimer's disease.
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Lawlor PA, Bland RJ, Das P, Price RW, Holloway V, Smithson L, Dicker BL, During MJ, Young D, Golde TE. Novel rat Alzheimer's disease models based on AAV-mediated gene transfer to selectively increase hippocampal Abeta levels. Mol Neurodegener 2007; 2:11. [PMID: 17559680 PMCID: PMC1906777 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-2-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 06/09/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a decline in cognitive function and accumulation of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) in extracellular plaques. Mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilins alter APP metabolism resulting in accumulation of Aβ42, a peptide essential for the formation of amyloid deposits and proposed to initiate the cascade leading to AD. However, the role of Aβ40, the more prevalent Aβ peptide secreted by cells and a major component of cerebral Aβ deposits, is less clear. In this study, virally-mediated gene transfer was used to selectively increase hippocampal levels of human Aβ42 and Aβ40 in adult Wistar rats, allowing examination of the contribution of each to the cognitive deficits and pathology seen in AD. Results Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors encoding BRI-Aβ cDNAs were generated resulting in high-level hippocampal expression and secretion of the specific encoded Aβ peptide. As a comparison the effect of AAV-mediated overexpression of APPsw was also examined. Animals were tested for development of learning and memory deficits (open field, Morris water maze, passive avoidance, novel object recognition) three months after infusion of AAV. A range of impairments was found, with the most pronounced deficits observed in animals co-injected with both AAV-BRI-Aβ40 and AAV-BRI-Aβ42. Brain tissue was analyzed by ELISA and immunohistochemistry to quantify levels of detergent soluble and insoluble Aβ peptides. BRI-Aβ42 and the combination of BRI-Aβ40+42 overexpression resulted in elevated levels of detergent-insoluble Aβ. No significant increase in detergent-insoluble Aβ was seen in the rats expressing APPsw or BRI-Aβ40. No pathological features were noted in any rats, except the AAV-BRI-Aβ42 rats which showed focal, amorphous, Thioflavin-negative Aβ42 deposits. Conclusion The results show that AAV-mediated gene transfer is a valuable tool to model aspects of AD pathology in vivo, and demonstrate that whilst expression of Aβ42 alone is sufficient to initiate Aβ deposition, both Aβ40 and Aβ42 may contribute to cognitive deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Lawlor
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ross J Bland
- Neurologix Research, Inc., Fort Lee, NJ 07024, USA
| | - Pritam Das
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Robert W Price
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Vallie Holloway
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Lisa Smithson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Bridget L Dicker
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J During
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Human Cancer Genetics, The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Deborah Young
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Todd E Golde
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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Tenner AJ, Fonseca MI. The Double-Edged Flower: Roles of Complement Protein C1q in Neurodegenerative Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2007; 586:153-76. [PMID: 16893071 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-34134-x_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A role for the complement cascade in AD neuropathology was hypothesized over a decade ago, and the results of a significant number of in vitro studies are consistent with the involvement of this pathway in AD pathogenesis (reviewed in). Since C1q is colocalized with thioflavine-positive plaques and the C5b-9 complement membrane attack complex is detected in AD brain at autopsy, it is reasonable to hypothesize that complement activation has a role in the manifestation of AD either by its lytic capacity or as a trigger of glial infiltration and initiation of potentially damaging inflammation. The observed diminished glial activation and reduced loss of neuronal integrity in a murine model overexpressing mutant human APP but lacking the ability to activate the classical complement cascade provide the first direct evidence for a detrimental role of C1q, and presumably activation of the classical complement pathway in an animal model of AD. Research is now focused on generating mouse models that more closely mimic the human disease, so that the role of complement activation and inflammation on the behavioral/learning and memory dysfunction that occurs in this disease can be assessed. In addition, candidate therapies such as targeted inhibition of complement activation will need to be tested in these animal models as a step toward treatment of humans with the disease. However, it is important that the potential for a protective effect of C1q early on in disease progression should not be overlooked. Rather, strategies that enhance or mimic the protective effects of C1q as well as strategies that inhibit the detrimental processes should be fully investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Tenner
- Department of Molecular Biology, Center for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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