Evidence from glycine transfer RNA of a frozen accident at the dawn of the genetic code

Cellular Site-Specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids in Synthetic Biology

Over the past two decades, genetic code expansion (GCE)-enabled methods for incorporating noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) into proteins have significantly advanced the field of synthetic biology while also reaping substantial benefits from it. On one hand, they provide synthetic biologists with a powerful toolkit to enhance and diversify biological designs beyond natural constraints. Conversely, synthetic biology has not only propelled the development of ncAA incorporation through sophisticated tools and innovative strategies but also broadened its potential applications across various fields. This Review delves into the methodological advancements and primary applications of site-specific cellular incorporation of ncAAs in synthetic biology. The topics encompass expanding the genetic code through noncanonical codon addition, creating semiautonomous and autonomous organisms, designing regulatory elements, and manipulating and extending peptide natural product biosynthetic pathways. The Review concludes by examining the ongoing challenges and future prospects of GCE-enabled ncAA incorporation in synthetic biology and highlighting opportunities for further advancements in this rapidly evolving field.

Combinatorial and frequency properties of the ribosome ancestors

BACKGROUND

The current ribosome has evolved from the primitive stages of life on Earth. Its function is to build proteins and on the basis of this role, we are looking for a universal common ancestor to the ribosome which could: i) present optimal combinatorial properties, and ii) have left vestiges in the current molecules composing the ribosome (rRNA or r-proteins) or helping in its construction and functioning.

METHODS

Genomic public databases are used for finding the nucleotide sequences of rRNAs and mRNA of r-proteins and statistical calculations are performed on the occurrence in these genes of some pentamers belonging to the RNA proposed as optimal ribosome ancestor.

RESULTS

After having exhibited a possible solution to the problem of an RNA capable of catalyzing peptide genesis, traces of this RNA are found in many rRNAs and mRNA of r-proteins, as well as in factors contributing to the construction of the current ribosome.

CONCLUSIONS

The existence of an optimal primordial RNA whose function is to facilitate the creation of peptide bonds between amino acids may have contributed to accelerate the emergence of the first vital processes. Its traces should be found in many living species inside structures structurally and functionally close to the ribosome, which is already the case in the species studied in this article.

The 3 31 Nucleotide Minihelix tRNA Evolution Theorem and the Origin of Life

There are no theorems (proven theories) in the biological sciences. We propose that the 3 31 nt minihelix tRNA evolution theorem be universally accepted as one. The 3 31 nt minihelix theorem completely describes the evolution of type I and type II tRNAs from ordered precursors (RNA repeats and inverted repeats). Despite the diversification of tRNAome sequences, statistical tests overwhelmingly support the theorem. Furthermore, the theorem relates the dominant pathway for the origin of life on Earth, specifically, how tRNAomes and the genetic code may have coevolved. Alternate models for tRNA evolution (i.e., 2 minihelix, convergent and accretion models) are falsified. In the context of the pre-life world, tRNA was a molecule that, via mutation, could modify anticodon sequences and teach itself to code. Based on the tRNA sequence, we relate the clearest history to date of the chemical evolution of life. From analysis of tRNA evolution, ribozyme-mediated RNA ligation was a primary driving force in the evolution of complexity during the pre-life-to-life transition. TRNA formed the core for the evolution of living systems on Earth.

On the evolution of coenzyme biosynthesis

Covering: up to 2022The report provides a broad approach to deciphering the evolution of coenzyme biosynthetic pathways. Here, these various pathways are analyzed with respect to the coenzymes required for this purpose. Coenzymes whose biosynthesis relies on a large number of coenzyme-mediated reactions probably appeared on the scene at a later stage of biological evolution, whereas the biosyntheses of pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and nicotinamide (NAD+) require little additional coenzymatic support and are therefore most likely very ancient biosynthetic pathways.

On the Evolutionary History of the Twenty Encoded Amino Acids

α-Amino acids are essential molecular constituents of life, twenty of which are privileged because they are encoded by the ribosomal machinery. The question remains open as to why this number and why this 20 in particular, an almost philosophical question that cannot be conclusively resolved. They are closely related to the evolution of the genetic code and whether nucleic acids, amino acids, and peptides appeared simultaneously and were available under prebiotic conditions when the first self-sufficient complex molecular system emerged on Earth. This report focuses on prebiotic and metabolic aspects of amino acids and proteins starting with meteorites, followed by their formation, including peptides, under plausible prebiotic conditions, and the major biosynthetic pathways in the various kingdoms of life. Coenzymes play a key role in the present analysis in that amino acid metabolism is linked to glycolysis and different variants of the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA, rTCA, and the incomplete horseshoe version) as well as the biosynthesis of the most important coenzymes. Thus, the report opens additional perspectives and facets on the molecular evolution of primary metabolism.

Genetic Code Expansion Through Quadruplet Codon Decoding

Noncanonical amino acid mutagenesis has emerged as a powerful tool for the study of protein structure and function. While triplet nonsense codons, especially the amber codon, have been widely employed, quadruplet codons have attracted attention for the potential of creating additional blank codons for noncanonical amino acids mutagenesis. In this review, we discuss methodologies and applications of quadruplet codon decoding in genetic code expansion both in vitro and in vivo.

The origin of the genetic code and origin of ideas

Inouye et al. (2020) use the observation that Ser is coded in the genetic code by two blocks of codons that differ on more than one base to understand some aspects of the origin of the genetic code organization. I argue instead that this observation per se cannot be used to understand any aspect of the origin of the genetic code, unless it is accompanied by other assumptions concerning in the specific case: (i) the ancestrality of some amino acids, (ii) the hypothesis that the first mRNA to be translated was poly-G, which can be translated into poly-Gly, and (iii) an evolutionary mechanism for the genetic code origin based on the duplication of tRNAs. However, both the tRNA duplication mechanism and the existence of poly-G as the first mRNA to be translated are not corroborated as mechanisms through which the genetic code would have been structured. For example, the origin of the actual mRNA should have been preceded by the evolution of a proto-mRNA which evidently already coded for more than one amino acid. Therefore, when it evolved from proto-mRNA, the mRNA should already have coded for more than one amino acid. In other words, poly-G as mRNA would most likely never have existed because the first mRNAs already had to code for more than one amino acid. On the contrary, all these assumptions would have been operational if the observations of Inouye et al. (2020) had been discussed within the coevolution theory of the origin of the genetic code, which they do not.

Evolution of the genetic code

Diverse models have been advanced for the evolution of the genetic code. Here, models for tRNA, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) and genetic code evolution were combined with an understanding of EF-Tu suppression of tRNA 3rd anticodon position wobbling. The result is a highly detailed scheme that describes the placements of all amino acids in the standard genetic code. The model describes evolution of 6-, 4-, 3-, 2- and 1-codon sectors. Innovation in column 3 of the code is explained. Wobbling and code degeneracy are explained. Separate distribution of serine sectors between columns 2 and 4 of the code is described. We conclude that very little chaos contributed to evolution of the genetic code and that the pattern of evolution of aaRS enzymes describes a history of the evolution of the code. A model is proposed to describe the biological selection for the earliest evolution of the code and for protocell evolution.

Evolution of the genetic code; Evidence from serine codon use disparity in Escherichia coli

Among the 20 amino acids, three of them-leucine (Leu), arginine (Arg), and serine (Ser)-are encoded by six different codons. In comparison, all of the other 17 amino acids are encoded by either 4, 3, 2, or 1 codon. Peculiarly, Ser is separated into two disparate Ser codon boxes, differing by at least two-base substitutions, in contrast to Leu and Arg, of which codons are mutually exchangeable by a single-base substitution. We propose that these two different Ser codons independently emerged during evolution. In this hypothesis, at the time of the origin of life there were only seven primordial amino acids: Valine (coded by GUX [X = U, C, A or G]), alanine (coded by GCX), aspartic acid (coded by GAY [Y = U or C]), glutamic acid (coded by GAZ [Z = A or G]), glycine (coded by GGX), Ser (coded by AGY), and Arg (coded by CGX and AGZ). All of these were derived from GGX for glycine by single-base substitutions. Later in evolution, another class of Ser codons, UCX, were derived from alanine codons, GCX, distinctly different from the other primordial Ser codon, AGY. From the analysis of the Escherichia coli genome, we find extensive disparities in the usage of these two Ser codons, as some genes use only AGY for Ser in their genes. In contrast, others use only UCX, pointing to distinct differences in their origins, consistent with our hypothesis.

Evolution of Life on Earth: tRNA, Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases and the Genetic Code

Life on Earth and the genetic code evolved around tRNA and the tRNA anticodon. We posit that the genetic code initially evolved to synthesize polyglycine as a cross-linking agent to stabilize protocells. We posit that the initial amino acids to enter the code occupied larger sectors of the code that were then invaded by incoming amino acids. Displacements of amino acids follow selection rules. The code sectored from a glycine code to a four amino acid code to an eight amino acid code to an ~16 amino acid code to the standard 20 amino acid code with stops. The proposed patterns of code sectoring are now most apparent from patterns of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase evolution. The Elongation Factor-Tu GTPase anticodon-codon latch that checks the accuracy of translation appears to have evolved at about the eight amino acid to ~16 amino acid stage. Before evolution of the EF-Tu latch, we posit that both the 1st and 3rd anticodon positions were wobble positions. The genetic code evolved via tRNA charging errors and via enzymatic modifications of amino acids joined to tRNAs, followed by tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase differentiation. Fidelity mechanisms froze the code by inhibiting further innovation.

The Ancient Operational Code is Embedded in the Amino Acid Substitution Matrix and aaRS Phylogenies

The underlying structure of the canonical amino acid substitution matrix (aaSM) is examined by considering stepwise improvements in the differential recognition of amino acids according to their chemical properties during the branching history of the two aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) superfamilies. The evolutionary expansion of the genetic code is described by a simple parameterization of the aaSM, in which (i) the number of distinguishable amino acid types, (ii) the matrix dimension and (iii) the number of parameters, each increases by one for each bifurcation in an aaRS phylogeny. Parameterized matrices corresponding to trees in which the size of an amino acid sidechain is the only discernible property behind its categorization as a substrate, exclusively for a Class I or II aaRS, provide a significantly better fit to empirically determined aaSM than trees with random bifurcation patterns. A second split between polar and nonpolar amino acids in each Class effects a vastly greater further improvement. The earliest Class-separated epochs in the phylogenies of the aaRS reflect these enzymes' capability to distinguish tRNAs through the recognition of acceptor stem identity elements via the minor (Class I) and major (Class II) helical grooves, which is how the ancient operational code functioned. The advent of tRNA recognition using the anticodon loop supports the evolution of the optimal map of amino acid chemistry found in the later genetic code, an essentially digital categorization, in which polarity is the major functional property, compensating for the unrefined, haphazard differentiation of amino acids achieved by the operational code.

A tRNA- and Anticodon-Centric View of the Evolution of Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases, tRNAomes, and the Genetic Code

Pathways of standard genetic code evolution remain conserved and apparent, particularly upon analysis of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) lineages. Despite having incompatible active site folds, class I and class II aaRS are homologs by sequence. Specifically, structural class IA aaRS enzymes derive from class IIA aaRS enzymes by in-frame extension of the protein N-terminus and by an alternate fold nucleated by the N-terminal extension. The divergence of aaRS enzymes in the class I and class II clades was analyzed using the Phyre2 protein fold recognition server. The class I aaRS radiated from the class IA enzymes, and the class II aaRS radiated from the class IIA enzymes. The radiations of aaRS enzymes bolster the coevolution theory for evolution of the amino acids, tRNAomes, the genetic code, and aaRS enzymes and support a tRNA anticodon-centric perspective. We posit that second- and third-position tRNA anticodon sequence preference (C>(U~G)>A) powerfully selected the sectoring pathway for the code. GlyRS-IIA appears to have been the primordial aaRS from which all aaRS enzymes evolved, and glycine appears to have been the primordial amino acid around which the genetic code evolved.

Match fitness landscapes for macromolecular interaction networks: Selection for translational accuracy and rate can displace tRNA-binding interfaces of non-cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

Advances in structural biology of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) have revealed incredible diversity in how aaRSs bind their tRNA substrates. The causes of this diversity remain mysterious. We developed a new class of highly rugged fitness landscape models called match landscapes, through which genes encode the assortative interactions of their gene products through the complementarity and identifiability of their structural features. We used results from coding theory to prove bounds and equalities on fitness in match landscapes assuming additive interaction energies, macroscopic aminoacylation kinetics including proofreading, site-specific modifiers of interaction, and selection for translational accuracy in multiple, perfectly encoded site-types. Using genotypes based on extended Hamming codes we show that over a wide array of interface sizes and numbers of encoded cognate pairs, selection for translational accuracy alone is insufficient to displace the tRNA-binding interfaces of aaRSs. Yet, under combined selection for translational accuracy and rate, site-specific modifiers are selected to adaptively displace the tRNA-binding interfaces of non-cognate aaRS-tRNA pairs. We describe a remarkable correspondence between the lengths of perfect RNA (quaternary) codes and the modal sizes of small non-coding RNA families.

Ribosome Structure, Function, and Early Evolution

Ribosomes are among the largest and most dynamic molecular motors. The structure and dynamics of translation initiation and elongation are reviewed. Three ribosome motions have been identified for initiation and translocation. A swivel motion between the head/beak and the body of the 30S subunit was observed. A tilting dynamic of the head/beak versus the body of the 30S subunit was detected using simulations. A reversible ratcheting motion was seen between the 30S and the 50S subunits that slide relative to one another. The 30S⁻50S intersubunit contacts regulate translocation. IF2, EF-Tu, and EF-G are homologous G-protein GTPases that cycle on and off the same site on the ribosome. The ribosome, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) enzymes, transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA), and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) form the core of information processing in cells and are coevolved. Surprisingly, class I and class II aaRS enzymes, with distinct and incompatible folds, are homologs. Divergence of class I and class II aaRS enzymes and coevolution of the genetic code are described by analysis of ancient archaeal species.

Structural evolution of Glycyl-tRNA synthetases alpha subunit and its implication in the initial organization of the decoding system

The origin and evolution of the genetic code is a fundamental challenge in modern biology. At the center of this problem is the correct interaction between amino acids and tRNAs. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is the enzyme responsible for the correct binding between amino acids and tRNAs. Among the 20 canonical amino acid, glycine was the most abundant in prebiotic condition and it must have been one of the first to be incorporated into the genetic code. In this work, we derive the ancestral sequence of Glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GlyRS) and predict its 3D-structure. We show, via molecular docking experiments, the capacity of ancestral GlyRS to bind the tRNA anticodon stem loop, cofactors and substrates. These bindings exhibit high affinity and specificity. We propose that the primordial function of these interactions was to stabilize both compounds to make possible the catalysis. In this context, the anticodon stem loop did contribute to the encoding system and just with the emergence of the mRNA it was co-opted for codification. Thus, we present a model for the origin of the genetic code in which the operational and the anticodon codes did not evolve independently.

Rooted tRNAomes and evolution of the genetic code

We advocate for a tRNA- rather than an mRNA-centric model for evolution of the genetic code. The mechanism for evolution of cloverleaf tRNA provides a root sequence for radiation of tRNAs and suggests a simplified understanding of code evolution. To analyze code sectoring, rooted tRNAomes were compared for several archaeal and one bacterial species. Rooting of tRNAome trees reveals conserved structures, indicating how the code was shaped during evolution and suggesting a model for evolution of a LUCA tRNAome tree. We propose the polyglycine hypothesis that the initial product of the genetic code may have been short chain polyglycine to stabilize protocells. In order to describe how anticodons were allotted in evolution, the sectoring-degeneracy hypothesis is proposed. Based on sectoring, a simple stepwise model is developed, in which the code sectors from a 1→4→8→∼16 letter code. At initial stages of code evolution, we posit strong positive selection for wobble base ambiguity, supporting convergence to 4-codon sectors and ∼16 letters. In a later stage, ∼5–6 letters, including stops, were added through innovating at the anticodon wobble position. In archaea and bacteria, tRNA wobble adenine is negatively selected, shrinking the maximum size of the primordial genetic code to 48 anticodons. Because 64 codons are recognized in mRNA, tRNA-mRNA coevolution requires tRNA wobble position ambiguity leading to degeneracy of the code.

On the Uniqueness of the Standard Genetic Code

In this work, we determine the biological and mathematical properties that are sufficient and necessary to uniquely determine both the primeval RNY (purine-any base-pyrimidine) code and the standard genetic code (SGC). These properties are: the evolution of the SGC from the RNY code; the degeneracy of both codes, and the non-degeneracy of the assignments of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) to amino acids; the wobbling property; the consideration that glycine was the first amino acid; the topological and symmetrical properties of both codes.

Systematic Evolution and Study of UAGN Decoding tRNAs in a Genomically Recoded Bacteria

We report the first systematic evolution and study of tRNA variants that are able to read a set of UAGN (N = A, G, U, C) codons in a genomically recoded E. coli strain that lacks any endogenous in-frame UAGN sequences and release factor 1. Through randomizing bases in anticodon stem-loop followed by a functional selection, we identified tRNA mutants with significantly improved UAGN decoding efficiency, which will augment the current efforts on genetic code expansion through quadruplet decoding. We found that an extended anticodon loop with an extra nucleotide was required for a detectable efficiency in UAGN decoding. We also observed that this crucial extra nucleotide was converged to a U (position 33.5) in all of the top tRNA hits no matter which UAGN codon they suppress. The insertion of U33.5 in the anticodon loop likely causes tRNA distortion and affects anticodon-codon interaction, which induces +1 frameshift in the P site of ribosome. A new model was proposed to explain the observed features of UAGN decoding. Overall, our findings elevate our understanding of the +1 frameshift mechanism and provide a useful guidance for further efforts on the genetic code expansion using a non-canonical quadruplet reading frame.

Clues to tRNA Evolution from the Distribution of Class II tRNAs and Serine Codons in the Genetic Code

We have previously proposed that tRNA^Gly was the first tRNA and glycine was the first amino acid incorporated into the genetic code. The next two amino acids incorporated would have been the other two small hydrophilic amino acids serine and aspartic acid, which occurred through the duplication of the tRNA^Gly sequence, followed by mutation of its anticodon by single C to U transition mutations, possibly through spontaneous deamination. Interestingly, however, tRNA^Ser has a different structure than most other tRNAs, possessing a long variable arm; because of this tRNA^Ser is classified as a class II tRNA. Also, serine codons are found not only in the bottom right-hand corner of the genetic code table next to those for glycine and aspartic acid, but also in the top row of the table, next to those for two of the most hydrophobic amino acids, leucine and phenylalanine. In the following, I propose that the class II tRNA structure of tRNA^Ser and the arrangement of serine codons in the genetic code provide clues to the early evolution of tRNA and the genetic code. In addition, I address Di Giulio’s recent criticism of our proposal that tRNA^Gly was the first tRNA, and discuss how early peptides produced from a restricted amino acid alphabet of glycine, serine and aspartic acid might have possessed proteolytic activity, which is possibly important for the early recycling of amino acid monomers.

Origins and Early Evolution of the tRNA Molecule

Modern transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are composed of ~76 nucleotides and play an important role as "adaptor" molecules that mediate the translation of information from messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Many studies suggest that the contemporary full-length tRNA was formed by the ligation of half-sized hairpin-like RNAs. A minihelix (a coaxial stack of the acceptor stem on the T-stem of tRNA) can function both in aminoacylation by aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and in peptide bond formation on the ribosome, indicating that it may be a vestige of the ancestral tRNA. The universal CCA-3' terminus of tRNA is also a typical characteristic of the molecule. "Why CCA?" is the fundamental unanswered question, but several findings give a comprehensive picture of its origin. Here, the origins and early evolution of tRNA are discussed in terms of various perspectives, including nucleotide ligation, chiral selectivity of amino acids, genetic code evolution, and the organization of the ribosomal peptidyl transferase center (PTC). The proto-tRNA molecules may have evolved not only as adaptors but also as contributors to the composition of the ribosome.

Beyond the Frozen Accident: Glycine Assignment in the Genetic Code

tRNA with a terminal UCCA-3' forms a structure in which the 3'-sequence folds back. The adenine of glycyl-AMP can base-pair with the uridine of the UCCA-3' region, which places the glycine residue in close proximity to the 3'-terminal adenosine of tRNA, possibly enabling the transfer of glycine from glycyl-AMP to tRNA. Thus, the UCCA-3'-containing tRNA (as seen in eubacterial tRNA(Gly)s) would possess an intrinsic property of glycylation by glycyl-AMP. This model provides a new perspective on the origins of the glycine assignment in the genetic code, beyond the "frozen accident" hypothesis.

From the RNA world to the RNA/protein world: contribution of some riboswitch-binding species?

Some amino acids and their formal derivatives, currently riboswitch-binding species, could have interacted with polyribonucletides in prebiotic environments, leading to the peptide formation. If the resulting compounds had led to a sustainable polymerization of amino acids and the new structures had catalytic activity, such would have been an important contribution to the transition from the RNA world to the RNA/Protein world.

Genetic code evolution started with the incorporation of glycine, followed by other small hydrophilic amino acids

We propose that glycine was the first amino acid to be incorporated into the genetic code, followed by serine, aspartic and/or glutamic acid-small hydrophilic amino acids that all have codons in the bottom right-hand corner of the standard genetic code table. Because primordial ribosomal synthesis is presumed to have been rudimentary, this stage would have been characterized by the synthesis of short, water-soluble peptides, the first of which would have comprised polyglycine. Evolution of the code is proposed to have occurred by the duplication and mutation of tRNA sequences, which produced a radiation of codon assignment outwards from the bottom right-hand corner. As a result of this expansion, we propose a trend from small hydrophilic to hydrophobic amino acids, with selection for longer polypeptides requiring a hydrophobic core for folding and stability driving the incorporation of hydrophobic amino acids into the code.

The RNA world hypothesis: the worst theory of the early evolution of life (except for all the others)(a)

The problems associated with the RNA world hypothesis are well known. In the following I discuss some of these difficulties, some of the alternative hypotheses that have been proposed, and some of the problems with these alternative models. From a biosynthetic - as well as, arguably, evolutionary - perspective, DNA is a modified RNA, and so the chicken-and-egg dilemma of "which came first?" boils down to a choice between RNA and protein. This is not just a question of cause and effect, but also one of statistical likelihood, as the chance of two such different types of macromolecule arising simultaneously would appear unlikely. The RNA world hypothesis is an example of a 'top down' (or should it be 'present back'?) approach to early evolution: how can we simplify modern biological systems to give a plausible evolutionary pathway that preserves continuity of function? The discovery that RNA possesses catalytic ability provides a potential solution: a single macromolecule could have originally carried out both replication and catalysis. RNA - which constitutes the genome of RNA viruses, and catalyzes peptide synthesis on the ribosome - could have been both the chicken and the egg! However, the following objections have been raised to the RNA world hypothesis: (i) RNA is too complex a molecule to have arisen prebiotically; (ii) RNA is inherently unstable; (iii) catalysis is a relatively rare property of long RNA sequences only; and (iv) the catalytic repertoire of RNA is too limited. I will offer some possible responses to these objections in the light of work by our and other labs. Finally, I will critically discuss an alternative theory to the RNA world hypothesis known as 'proteins first', which holds that proteins either preceded RNA in evolution, or - at the very least - that proteins and RNA coevolved. I will argue that, while theoretically possible, such a hypothesis is probably unprovable, and that the RNA world hypothesis, although far from perfect or complete, is the best we currently have to help understand the backstory to contemporary biology.

Primordial soup or vinaigrette: did the RNA world evolve at acidic pH?

Background

The RNA world concept has wide, though certainly not unanimous, support within the origin-of-life scientific community. One view is that life may have emerged as early as the Hadean Eon 4.3-3.8 billion years ago with an atmosphere of high CO₂ producing an acidic ocean of the order of pH 3.5-6. Compatible with this scenario is the intriguing proposal that life arose within alkaline (pH 9-11) deep-sea hydrothermal vents like those of the 'Lost City', with the interface with the acidic ocean creating a proton gradient sufficient to drive the first metabolism. However, RNA is most stable at pH 4-5 and is unstable at alkaline pH, raising the possibility that RNA may have first arisen in the acidic ocean itself (possibly near an acidic hydrothermal vent), acidic volcanic lake or comet pond. As the Hadean Eon progressed, the ocean pH is inferred to have gradually risen to near neutral as atmospheric CO₂ levels decreased.

Presentation of the hypothesis

We propose that RNA is well suited for a world evolving at acidic pH. This is supported by the enhanced stability at acidic pH of not only the RNA phosphodiester bond but also of the aminoacyl-(t)RNA and peptide bonds. Examples of in vitro-selected ribozymes with activities at acid pH have recently been documented. The subsequent transition to a DNA genome could have been partly driven by the gradual rise in ocean pH, since DNA has greater stability than RNA at alkaline pH, but not at acidic pH.

Testing the hypothesis

We have proposed mechanisms for two key RNA world activities that are compatible with an acidic milieu: (i) non-enzymatic RNA replication of a hemi-protonated cytosine-rich oligonucleotide, and (ii) specific aminoacylation of tRNA/hairpins through triple helix interactions between the helical aminoacyl stem and a single-stranded aminoacylating ribozyme.

Implications of the hypothesis

Our hypothesis casts doubt on the hypothesis that RNA evolved in the vicinity of alkaline hydrothermal vents. The ability of RNA to form protonated base pairs and triples at acidic pH suggests that standard base pairing may not have been a dominant requirement of the early RNA world.

The transition from noncoded to coded protein synthesis: did coding mRNAs arise from stability-enhancing binding partners to tRNA?

BACKGROUND

Understanding the origin of protein synthesis has been notoriously difficult. We have taken as a starting premise Wolf and Koonin's view that "evolution of the translation system is envisaged to occur in a compartmentalized ensemble of replicating, co-selected RNA segments, i.e., in an RNA world containing ribozymes with versatile activities".

PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS

We propose that coded protein synthesis arose from a noncoded process in an RNA world as a natural consequence of the accumulation of a range of early tRNAs and their serendipitous RNA binding partners. We propose that, initially, RNA molecules with 3' CCA termini that could be aminoacylated by ribozymes, together with an ancestral peptidyl transferase ribozyme, produced small peptides with random or repetitive sequences. Our concept is that the first tRNA arose in this context from the ligation of two RNA hairpins and could be similarly aminoacylated at its 3' end to become a substrate for peptidyl transfer catalyzed by the ancestral ribozyme. Within this RNA world we hypothesize that proto-mRNAs appeared first simply as serendipitous binding partners, forming complementary base pair interactions with the anticodon loops of tRNA pairs. Initially this may have enhanced stability of the paired tRNA molecules so they were held together in close proximity, better positioning the 3' CCA termini for peptidyl transfer and enhancing the rate of peptide synthesis. If there were a selective advantage for the ensemble through the peptide products synthesized, it would provide a natural pathway for the evolution of a coding system with the expansion of a cohort of different tRNAs and their binding partners. The whole process could have occurred quite unremarkably for such a profound acquisition.

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

It should be possible to test the different parts of our model using the isolated contemporary 50S ribosomal subunit initially, and then with RNAs transcribed in vitro together with a minimal set of ribosomal proteins that are required today to support protein synthesis.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS

This model proposes that genetic coding arose de novo from complementary base pair interactions between tRNAs and single-stranded RNAs present in the immediate environment.

REVIEWERS

This article was reviewed by Eugene Koonin, Rob Knight and Berthold Kastner (nominated by Laura Landweber).

Codon size reduction as the origin of the triplet genetic code

The genetic code appears to be optimized in its robustness to missense errors and frameshift errors. In addition, the genetic code is near-optimal in terms of its ability to carry information in addition to the sequences of encoded proteins. As evolution has no foresight, optimality of the modern genetic code suggests that it evolved from less optimal code variants. The length of codons in the genetic code is also optimal, as three is the minimal nucleotide combination that can encode the twenty standard amino acids. The apparent impossibility of transitions between codon sizes in a discontinuous manner during evolution has resulted in an unbending view that the genetic code was always triplet. Yet, recent experimental evidence on quadruplet decoding, as well as the discovery of organisms with ambiguous and dual decoding, suggest that the possibility of the evolution of triplet decoding from living systems with non-triplet decoding merits reconsideration and further exploration. To explore this possibility we designed a mathematical model of the evolution of primitive digital coding systems which can decode nucleotide sequences into protein sequences. These coding systems can evolve their nucleotide sequences via genetic events of Darwinian evolution, such as point-mutations. The replication rates of such coding systems depend on the accuracy of the generated protein sequences. Computer simulations based on our model show that decoding systems with codons of length greater than three spontaneously evolve into predominantly triplet decoding systems. Our findings suggest a plausible scenario for the evolution of the triplet genetic code in a continuous manner. This scenario suggests an explanation of how protein synthesis could be accomplished by means of long RNA-RNA interactions prior to the emergence of the complex decoding machinery, such as the ribosome, that is required for stabilization and discrimination of otherwise weak triplet codon-anticodon interactions.