1
|
Chen D, Dong X, Chen D, Lin J, Lu T, Shen J, Ye H. Cdh1 plays a protective role in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease by regulating PPAR/PGC-1α signaling pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 681:13-19. [PMID: 37742473 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a significant etiological factor in liver-related diseases, which can lead to severe consequences such as steatohepatitis, cirrhosis and death. Cdh1 is considered as a crucial protein involved in cell cycle regulation. The purpose of this study is to explore the biological role of Cdh1 in NAFLD. MATERIALS AND METHODS NAFLD cell model was established, and L02 cells and AML12 cells were infected by shRNA lentivirus with Cdh1 knockdown in vitro, and the effect of Cdh1 deletion on cell lipid deposition was evaluated. The effects of Cdh1 deletion on Akt phosphorylation and PPAR/PGC-1α signaling pathway in L02 cells were examined. In addition, the NAFLD mouse model was constructed, and the conditional knockout mice of Cdh1 were selected to verify the results. RESULTS In vitro experiments showed that the Cdh1 deletion enhanced cell lipid deposition. In vivo experiments showed that conditional knockdown of Cdh1 aggravated fatty degeneration and damage of liver in mice. Cdh1 deletion promotes Akt phosphorylation and inhibits PPAR/PGC-1α signaling pathway in L02 cells. Conditional knockout of Cdh1 down-regulates PPAR/PGC-1α signaling pathway in NAFLD mouse model. CONCLUSION The deletion of Cdh1 may promote Akt phosphorylation by up-regulating Skp2 and inhibit the PPAR/PGC-1α signaling pathway. Cdh1 serves a protective function in the occurrence and progression of NAFLD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dahua Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Xiaoqi Dong
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Dawei Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Jieqiong Lin
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Ting Lu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China
| | - Jianwei Shen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China.
| | - Hua Ye
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ningbo Medical Center Lihuili Hospital (Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University), Ningbo, 315040, Zhejiang Province, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Samaržija I. Post-Translational Modifications That Drive Prostate Cancer Progression. Biomolecules 2021; 11:247. [PMID: 33572160 PMCID: PMC7915076 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
While a protein primary structure is determined by genetic code, its specific functional form is mostly achieved in a dynamic interplay that includes actions of many enzymes involved in post-translational modifications. This versatile repertoire is widely used by cells to direct their response to external stimuli, regulate transcription and protein localization and to keep proteostasis. Herein, post-translational modifications with evident potency to drive prostate cancer are explored. A comprehensive list of proteome-wide and single protein post-translational modifications and their involvement in phenotypic outcomes is presented. Specifically, the data on phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, acetylation, and lipidation in prostate cancer and the enzymes involved are collected. This type of knowledge is especially valuable in cases when cancer cells do not differ in the expression or mutational status of a protein, but its differential activity is regulated on the level of post-translational modifications. Since their driving roles in prostate cancer, post-translational modifications are widely studied in attempts to advance prostate cancer treatment. Current strategies that exploit the potential of post-translational modifications in prostate cancer therapy are presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Samaržija
- Laboratory for Epigenomics, Division of Molecular Medicine, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bansal S, Tiwari S. Mechanisms for the temporal regulation of substrate ubiquitination by the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome. Cell Div 2019; 14:14. [PMID: 31889987 PMCID: PMC6927175 DOI: 10.1186/s13008-019-0057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is a multi-subunit, multifunctional ubiquitin ligase that controls the temporal degradation of numerous cell cycle regulatory proteins to direct the unidirectional cell cycle phases. Several different mechanisms contribute to ensure the correct order of substrate modification by the APC/C complex. Recent advances in biochemical, biophysical and structural studies of APC/C have provided a deep mechanistic insight into the working of this complex ubiquitin ligase. This complex displays remarkable conformational flexibility in response to various binding partners and post-translational modifications, which together regulate substrate selection and catalysis of APC/C. Apart from this, various features and modifications of the substrates also influence their recognition and affinity to APC/C complex. Ultimately, temporal degradation of substrates depends on the kind of ubiquitin modification received, the processivity of APC/C, and other extrinsic mechanisms. This review discusses our current understanding of various intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms responsible for 'substrate ordering' by the APC/C complex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shivangee Bansal
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| | - Swati Tiwari
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Shibata A, Nakagawa K, Tsuduki T, Miyazawa T. δ-Tocotrienol treatment is more effective against hypoxic tumor cells than normoxic cells: potential implications for cancer therapy. J Nutr Biochem 2015; 26:832-40. [PMID: 25979648 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tocotrienols, unsaturated forms of vitamin E, inhibit the proliferation of a variety of cancer cells and suppress angiogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying those effects on cancer cell growth remain unclear especially under hypoxic conditions. In this study, we demonstrated that δ-tocotrienol (δ-T3) could be used as a novel anticancer agent against human colorectal adenocarcinoma (DLD-1) cells under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. δ-T3 inhibited the growth of DLD-1 cells in a dose-dependent fashion by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. This effect was more potent under hypoxic than normoxic conditions. The anticancer effect of δ-T3 was achieved by its up-regulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (p21 and p27), the activation of caspases and the suppression of phosphorylation of protein kinase B (Akt) at Thr(308) and Ser(473). In in vivo studies, oral administration of rice bran tocotrienol (RBT3, mainly γ-T3) (10 mg/mouse/day) significantly inhibited tumor growth in nude mice. In tumor analyses, RBT3 activated p21, p27, caspase-3 and caspase-9 and decreased Akt phosphorylation. Furthermore, immunostaining revealed that RBT3 decreased the number of cells positive for CD31/platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 in microvessels in the tumor. Taken together, these data suggest that tocotrienols are potent antitumor agents capable of inducing apoptosis and inhibiting angiogenesis under both hypoxic and normoxic conditions. Tocotrienols could have significant therapeutic potential in the clinical treatment of tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akira Shibata
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 981-8555, Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Nakagawa
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 981-8555, Japan.
| | - Tsuyoshi Tsuduki
- Laboratory of Food and Biomolecular Science, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 981-8555, Japan
| | - Teruo Miyazawa
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 981-8555, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yi YW, Kang HJ, Bae EJ, Oh S, Seong YS, Bae I. β-TrCP1 degradation is a novel action mechanism of PI3K/mTOR inhibitors in triple-negative breast cancer cells. Exp Mol Med 2015; 47:e143. [PMID: 25721419 PMCID: PMC4346488 DOI: 10.1038/emm.2014.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An F-box protein, β-TrCP recognizes substrate proteins and destabilizes them through ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis. It regulates the stability of diverse proteins and functions as either a tumor suppressor or an oncogene. Although the regulation by β-TrCP has been widely studied, the regulation of β-TrCP itself is not well understood yet. In this study, we found that the level of β-TrCP1 is downregulated by various protein kinase inhibitors in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. A PI3K/mTOR inhibitor PI-103 reduced the level of β-TrCP1 in a wide range of TNBC cells in a proteasome-dependent manner. Concomitantly, the levels of c-Myc and cyclin E were also downregulated by PI-103. PI-103 reduced the phosphorylation of β-TrCP1 prior to its degradation. In addition, knockdown of β-TrCP1 inhibited the proliferation of TNBC cells. We further identified that pharmacological inhibition of mTORC2 was sufficient to reduce the β-TrCP1 and c-Myc levels. These results suggest that mTORC2 regulates the stability of β-TrCP1 in TNBC cells and targeting β-TrCP1 is a potential approach to treat human TNBC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Weon Yi
- 1] Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA [2] Department of Nanobiomedical Science & BK21 PLUS Research Center for Regenerative Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Hyo Jin Kang
- Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Edward Jeong Bae
- 1] Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA [2] Department of Nursing and Health Studies, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Seunghoon Oh
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Yeon-Sun Seong
- 1] Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA [2] Department of Nanobiomedical Science & BK21 PLUS Research Center for Regenerative Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Insoo Bae
- 1] Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA [2] Department of Nanobiomedical Science & BK21 PLUS Research Center for Regenerative Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Deletion of ovarian carcinoma 2/disabled homolog 2 (DOC-2/DAB2) interacting protein (DAB2IP), is a tumor suppressor that serves as a scaffold protein involved in coordinately regulating cell proliferation, survival and apoptotic pathways. DAB2IP is epigenetically down-regulated in a variety of tumors through the action of the histone methyltransferase EZH2. Although DAB2IP is transcriptionally down-regulated in a variety of tumors, it remains unclear if other mechanisms contribute to functional inactivation of DAB2IP. Here we demonstrate that DAB2IP can be functionally down-regulated by two independent mechanisms. First, we identified that Akt1 can phosphorylate DAB2IP on S847, which regulates the interaction between DAB2IP and its effector molecules H-Ras and TRAF2. Second, we demonstrated that DAB2IP can be degraded in part through ubiquitin-proteasome pathway by SCFFbw7. DAB2IP harbors two Fbw7 phosho-degron motifs, which can be regulated by the kinase, CK1δ. Our data hence indicate that in addition to epigenetic down-regulation, two additional pathways can functional inactivate DAB2IP. Given that DAB2IP has previously been identified to possess direct causal role in tumorigenesis and metastasis, our data indicate that a variety of pathways may pass through DAB2IP to govern cancer development, and therefore highlight DAB2IP agonists as potential therapeutic approaches for future anti-cancer drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangping Dai
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tsai YS, Lai CL, Lai CH, Chang KH, Wu K, Tseng SF, Fazli L, Gleave M, Xiao G, Gandee L, Sharifi N, Moro L, Tzai TS, Hsieh JT. The role of homeostatic regulation between tumor suppressor DAB2IP and oncogenic Skp2 in prostate cancer growth. Oncotarget 2014; 5:6425-36. [PMID: 25115390 PMCID: PMC4171641 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Altered DAB2IP gene expression often detected in prostate cancer (PCa) is due to epigenetic silencing. In this study, we unveil a new mechanism leading to the loss of DAB2IP protein; an oncogenic S-phase kinase-associated protein-2 (Skp2) as E3 ubiquitin ligase plays a key regulator in DAB2IP degradation. In order to unveil the role of Skp2 in the turnover of DAB2IP protein, both prostate cell lines and prostate cancer specimens with a variety of molecular and cell biologic techniques were employed. We demonstrated that DAB2IP is regulated by Skp2-mediated proteasome degradation in the prostate cell lines. Further analyses identified the N-terminal DAB2IP containing the ubiquitination site. Immunohistochemical study exhibited an inverse correlation between DAB2IP and Skp2 protein expression in the prostate cancer tissue microarray. In contrast, DAB2IP can suppressSkp2 protein expression is mediated through Akt signaling. The reciprocal regulation between DAB2IP and Skp2 can impact on the growth of PCa cells. This reciprocal regulation between DAB2IP and Skp2 protein represents a unique homeostatic balance between tumor suppressor and oncoprotein in normal prostate epithelia, which is apparently altered in cancer cells. The outcome of this study has identified new potential targets for developing new therapeutic strategy for PCa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuh-Shyan Tsai
- Department of Urology, Medical College and Hospital, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Chen-Li Lai
- Department of Urology, Medical College and Hospital, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ho Lai
- School of Medicine and Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Hsiung Chang
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Kaijie Wu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Medical School of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Shu-Fen Tseng
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Ladan Fazli
- VancouverProstate Center, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin Gleave
- VancouverProstate Center, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Guanghua Xiao
- Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Leah Gandee
- Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Nima Sharifi
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Loredana Moro
- Institute of Biomembranes and Bioenergetics, National Research Council (C.N.R.), Bari, Italy
| | - Tzong-Shin Tzai
- Department of Urology, Medical College and Hospital, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jer-Tsong Hsieh
- Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA; Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Li B, Lu W, Chen Z. Regulation of Androgen Receptor by E3 Ubiquitin Ligases: for More or Less. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 1. [PMID: 25152898 DOI: 10.14800/rci.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) primarily depends on the dysregulations of androgen receptor (AR) signaling pathway for the initiation and growth as well as recurrence after chemotherapy [1]. Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) effectively alleviates symptoms of the malignancy to arrest further growth of primary tumors or progression of metastasis in patients with advanced PCa. However, relapse occurs in many patients after a short period, and PCa cells eventually become insensitive to ADT - termed castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) [2, 3]. Tremendous advancements have been achieved to decipher the mechanisms on AR signaling, and the ubiquitination machinery contributes to PCa directly or indirectly by either promotion of AR transcriptional activity or degradation of AR protein levels. The recent report reveals that SKP2 regulates AR protein through ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation, highlighting the role of SKP2 in AR signaling. Given the pivotal roles of AKT and SKP2 in cancers, the differential mechanisms of AR ubiquitination by various E3 ligases hold valuable significance and beneficial implications for PCa control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37208-3599, USA
| | - Wenfu Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37208-3599, USA
| | - Zhenbang Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37208-3599, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Baicalin inhibits hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation via the AKT/HIF-1α/p27-associated pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:8153-68. [PMID: 24821539 PMCID: PMC4057725 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15058153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 04/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Baicalin, a flavonoid compound purified from the dry roots of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, has been shown to possess various pharmacological actions. Previous studies have revealed that baicalin inhibits the growth of cancer cells through the induction of apoptosis. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a devastating disease characterized by enhanced pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell (PASMCs) proliferation and suppressed apoptosis. However, the potential mechanism of baicalin in the regulation of PASMC proliferation and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases remains unexplored. To test the effects of baicalin on hypoxia, we used rats treated with or without baicalin (100 mg·kg−1 each rat) at the beginning of the third week after hypoxia. Hemodynamic and pulmonary pathomorphology data showed that right ventricular systolic pressures (RVSP), the weight of the right ventricle/left ventricle plus septum (RV/LV + S) ratio and the medial width of pulmonary arterioles were much higher in chronic hypoxia. However, baicalin treatment repressed the elevation of RVSP, RV/LV + S and attenuated the pulmonary vascular structure remodeling (PVSR) of pulmonary arterioles induced by chronic hypoxia. Additionally, baicalin (10 and 20 μmol·L−1) treatment suppressed the proliferation of PASMCs and attenuated the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-α (HIF-α) under hypoxia exposure. Meanwhile, baicalin reversed the hypoxia-induced reduction of p27 and increased AKT/protein kinase B phosphorylation p-AKT both in vivo and in vitro. These results suggested that baicalin could effectively attenuate PVSR and hypoxic pulmonary hypertension.
Collapse
|
10
|
Li B, Lu W, Yang Q, Yu X, Matusik RJ, Chen Z. Skp2 regulates androgen receptor through ubiquitin-mediated degradation independent of Akt/mTOR pathways in prostate cancer. Prostate 2014; 74:421-32. [PMID: 24347472 PMCID: PMC4062570 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The intervention of advanced prostate cancer (PCa) in patients has been commonly depending on androgen deprivation therapy. Despite of tremendous research efforts, however, molecular mechanisms on AR regulation remain poorly understood, particularly for castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Targeting AR and associated factors is considered an effective strategy in PCa treatment. METHODS Human prostate cancer cells were used in this study. Manipulations of Skp2 expression were achieved by Skp2 shRNA/siRNA or overexpression of plasmids. Dual luciferase reporter assay was applied for AR activity assessment. Western blot, ubiquitination assay, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence were applied to detect the proteins. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that Skp2 directly involves the regulation of AR expression through ubiquitination-mediated degradation. Skp2 interacted with AR protein in PCa cells, and enforced expression of Skp2 resulted in a decreased level and activity of AR. By contrast, Skp2 knockdown increased the protein accumulation and activity of AR. Importantly, changes of AR contributed by Skp2 led to subsequent alterations of PSA level in PCa cells. AR ubiquitination was significantly increased upon Skp2 overexpression but greatly reduced upon Skp2 knockdown. AR mutant at K847R abrogated Skp2-mediated ubiquitination of AR. NVP-BEZ235, a dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor, remarkably inhibited Skp2 level with a striking elevation of AR. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that Skp2 is an E3 ligase for proteasome-dependent AR degradation, and K847 on AR is the recognition site for Skp2-mediated ubiquitination. Our findings reveal an essential role of Skp2 in AR signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Wenfu Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Qing Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Xiuping Yu
- Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Robert J. Matusik
- Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Zhenbang Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee
- Correspondence to: Dr. Zhenbang Chen, Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Johnson AM, Kartha CC. Proliferation of murine c-kit(pos) cardiac stem cells stimulated with IGF-1 is associated with Akt-1 mediated phosphorylation and nuclear export of FoxO3a and its effect on downstream cell cycle regulators. Growth Factors 2014; 32:53-62. [PMID: 24580070 DOI: 10.3109/08977194.2014.889694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is known to promote proliferation in many cell types including c-kit(pos) cardiac stem cells (CSCs). Downstream signaling pathways of IGF-1 induced CSC proliferation have not been investigated. An important downstream target of IGF-1/Akt-1 signaling is FoxO3a, a key negative regulator of cell-cycle progression. We studied the effect of IGF-1 on proliferation of c-kit(pos) murine CSCs and found that IGF-1-mediated cell proliferation is associated with FoxO3a phosphorylation and inactivation of its transcriptional activity. PI3 inhibitors LY294002 and Wortmannin abolished the effect of IGF-1 on FoxO3a phosphorylation indicating that FoxO3a phosphorylation is mediated by PI3/Akt-1 pathway. In cells with FoxO3a translocation to the cytoplasm, there is decreased expression of cell-cycle inhibitors such as p27(kip1) and p57(kip2) and increased expression of CyclinD1. Our study provides evidence that IGF-1 induced CSC proliferation could be the result of FoxO3a inactivation and its downstream effect on cell-cycle regulators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann Mary Johnson
- Cardiovascular Disease Biology Division, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology , Trivandrum, Kerala , India
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Pramod S, Shivakumar K. Mechanisms in cardiac fibroblast growth: an obligate role for Skp2 and FOXO3a in ERK1/2 MAPK-dependent regulation of p27kip1. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2014; 306:H844-55. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00933.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac fibroblast hyperplasia associated with enhanced matrix deposition is a major determinant of tissue remodeling in several disease states of the heart. However, mechanisms controlling cell cycle progression in cardiac fibroblasts remain unexplored. Identification of cell cycle regulatory elements in these cells is important to develop strategies to check adverse cardiac remodeling under pathological conditions. This study sought to probe the mechanisms underlying ERK1/2-mediated p27Kip1 regulation in mitogenically stimulated cardiac fibroblasts. Addition of 10% fetal calf serum to quiescent cultures of adult rat cardiac fibroblasts promoted ERK1/2 activation, as evidenced by its phosphorylation status. Reduction in [3H]thymidine incorporation into DNA increased population doubling time, flow cytometry, and Western blot analysis showing reduced levels of cyclins D and A, p27Kip1 induction, and retinoblastoma protein (Rb) hypophosphorylation in ERK1/2-inhibited cells indicated ERK1/2 dependence of G1-S transition in cardiac fibroblasts. Lack of p27Kip1 protein in serum-stimulated, ERK1/2-active cells was associated with increased levels of Skp2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase for p27Kip1, whose knockdown by RNA interference induced p27Kip1 expression. Further, forced expression of Skp2 in ERK1/2-inhibited cells downregulated p27Kip1. Transcriptional upregulation of p27Kip1 mRNA in ERK1/2-inhibited cells, demonstrated by real-time PCR, correlated with forkhead box O 3a (FOXO3a) transcription factor activation, shown by gel shift assay. FOXO3a knockdown attenuated p27Kip1 mRNA and protein expression in ERK1/2-inhibited cells. We provide evidence for the first time that, in cardiac fibroblasts, activated ERK1/2 regulates p27Kip1 expression transcriptionally and posttranslationally via FOXO3a- and Skp2-dependent mechanisms. Additionally, this study uncovers interesting interactions between critical cell cycle regulatory elements that are only beginning to be understood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S. Pramod
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Cardiology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India
| | - K. Shivakumar
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Cardiology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Chan KC, Ting CM, Chan PS, Lo MC, Lo KW, Curry JE, Smyth T, Lee AWM, Ng WT, Tsao GSW, Wong RNS, Lung ML, Mak NK. A novel Hsp90 inhibitor AT13387 induces senescence in EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells and suppresses tumor formation. Mol Cancer 2013; 12:128. [PMID: 24156782 PMCID: PMC3834878 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-12-128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial malignancy strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). AT13387 is a novel heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitor, which inhibits the chaperone function of Hsp90 and reduces expression of Hsp90-dependent client oncoproteins. This study aimed to evaluate both the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of AT13387 in the EBV-positive NPC cell line C666-1. Results Our results showed that AT13387 inhibited C666-1 cell growth and induced cellular senescence with the downregulation of multiple Hsp90 client oncoproteins EGFR, AKT, CDK4, and restored the protein expression of negative cell cycle regulator p27. We also studied the ability of AT13387 to restore p27 expression by downregulation of AKT and the p27 ubiquitin mediator, Skp2, using AKT inhibitor and Skp2 siRNA. In the functional study, AT13387 inhibited cell migration with downregulation of a cell migration regulator, HDAC6, and increased the acetylation and stabilization of α-tubulin. We also examined the effect of AT13387 on putative cancer stem cells (CSC) by 3-D tumor sphere formation assay. AT13387 effectively reduced both the number and size of C666-1 tumor spheres with decreased expression of NPC CSC-like markers CD44 and SOX2. In the in vivo study, AT13387 significantly suppressed tumor formation in C666-1 NPC xenografts. Conclusion AT13387 suppressed cell growth, cell migration, tumor sphere formation and induced cellular senescence on EBV-positive NPC cell line C666-1. Also, the antitumor effect of AT13387 was demonstrated in an in vivo model. This study provided experimental evidence for the preclinical value of using AT13387 as an effective antitumor agent in treatment of NPC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Nai Ki Mak
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, P,R, China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Xu F, You X, Liu F, Shen X, Yao Y, Ye L, Zhang X. The oncoprotein HBXIP up-regulates Skp2 via activating transcription factor E2F1 to promote proliferation of breast cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2013; 333:124-32. [PMID: 23352642 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis B X-interacting protein (HBXIP) is a novel oncoprotein. In this study, we found that the expression levels of HBXIP were positively associated with those of S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2) in clinical breast cancer tissues and cell lines. Moreover, we found that HBXIP was able to stimulate the promoter of Skp2 through binding to the -640/-443 region in Skp2 promoter involving activating E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1). Skp2 plays crucial roles in HBXIP-enhanced proliferation of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. We conclude that HBXIP up-regulates Skp2 via activating E2F1 to promote proliferation of breast cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Xu
- Department of Cancer Research, Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology of Ministry of Education, Institute for Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Mao JZ, Jiang P, Cui SP, Ren YL, Zhao J, Yin XH, Enomoto A, Liu HJ, Hou L, Takahashi M, Zhang B. Girdin locates in centrosome and midbody and plays an important role in cell division. Cancer Sci 2012; 103:1780-7. [PMID: 22755556 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2012.02378.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Girdin is a downstream effector of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-AKT and interacts with actin and microtubule. Increasing evidence confirmed that Girdin played an important role in cell migration. Here we report that Girdin also regulates cell division. Overexpression or suppression of Girdin leads to attenuated cell proliferation. Imaging of mitotic cells revealed that Girdin is located in the cell division apparatus such as centrosome and midbody. The sub-cellular localization of Girdin was dependent on the domains, which interacted with actin or microtubules. Overexpression of Girdin lead to increased centrosome splitting and amplification. In addition, data show that pAKT also locates in both the centrosome and midbody, indicating the regulating role of AKT in Girdin-mediated cell division. To elucidate the effect of Girdin on tumor growth in vivo, HeLa cells infected with retrovirus harboring either control or Girdin shRNAs were injected subcutaneously into the immunocompromised nude mice. Downregulation of Girdin by shRNA markedly inhibited the cell growth of subcutaneously transplanted tumors in nude mice. These data demonstrate that Girdin is important for efficient cell division. Taking our previous data into consideration, we speculate that Girdin regulates both cell division and cell migration through cytoskeletal molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Zhuo Mao
- Department of Pathology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Decreased skp2 expression is necessary but not sufficient for therapy-induced senescence in prostate cancer. Transl Oncol 2012; 5:278-87. [PMID: 22937180 DOI: 10.1593/tlo.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapy-induced senescence (TIS), a cytostatic stress response in cancer cells, is induced inefficiently by current anticancer agents and radiation. The mechanisms that mediate TIS in cancer cells are not well defined. Herein, we characterize a robust senescence response both in vitro and in vivo to the quinone diaziquone (AZQ), previously identified in a high-throughput senescence-induction small-molecule screen. Using AZQ and several other agents that induce senescence, we screened a series of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors and found that p27(Kip1) was induced in all investigated prostate cancer cell lines. The ubiquitin-ligase Skp2 negatively regulates p27(Kip1) and, during TIS, is translocated to the cytoplasm before its expression is decreased in senescent cells. Overexpression of Skp2 blocks the effects of AZQ on senescence and p27(Kip1) induction. We also find that stable long-term short hairpin RNA knockdown of Skp2 decreases proliferation but does not generate the complete senescence phenotype. We conclude that Skp2 participates in regulating TIS but, alone, is insufficient to induce senescence in cancer cells.
Collapse
|
17
|
Chen RJ, Hung CM, Chen YL, Wu MD, Yuan GF, Wang YJ. Monascuspiloin induces apoptosis and autophagic cell death in human prostate cancer cells via the Akt and AMPK signaling pathways. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:7185-7193. [PMID: 22738037 DOI: 10.1021/jf3016927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Monascus pigments have been reported to possess anticancer effects in various cancer cells; however, the molecular mechanisms of their anticancer properties remain largely unknown. Monascuspiloin is an analogue of the Monascus pigment monascin, and its anticancer growth activity against human prostate cancer cells was evaluated using in vitro and in vivo models. Monascuspiloin effectively inhibits the growth of both androgen-dependent LNCaP and androgen-independent PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. Monascuspiloin preferentially induces apoptosis in LNCaP cells by attenuating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. In androgen-independent PC-3 cells, monascuspiloin induces G2/M arrest and autophagic cell death by an AMPK-dependent pathway. Induction of autophagy in PC-3 cells further sensitizes cells to apoptosis induced by monascuspiloin. Monascuspiloin inhibits tumor growth in nude mice bearing PC-3 xenografts through induction of apoptosis and autophagy. This study is the first to demonstrate that monascuspiloin has therapeutic potential for the treatment of both androgen-dependent and -independent human prostate cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Jane Chen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, National Cheng Kung University Medical College, Tainan 70428, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Penas C, Ramachandran V, Ayad NG. The APC/C Ubiquitin Ligase: From Cell Biology to Tumorigenesis. Front Oncol 2012; 1:60. [PMID: 22655255 PMCID: PMC3356048 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2011.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is required for normal cell proliferation, vertebrate development, and cancer cell transformation. The UPS consists of multiple proteins that work in concert to target a protein for degradation via the 26S proteasome. Chains of an 8.5-kDa protein called ubiquitin are attached to substrates, thus allowing recognition by the 26S proteasome. Enzymes called ubiquitin ligases or E3s mediate specific attachment to substrates. Although there are over 600 different ubiquitin ligases, the Skp1-Cullin-F-box (SCF) complexes and the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) are the most studied. SCF involvement in cancer has been known for some time while APC/C's cancer role has recently emerged. In this review we will discuss the importance of APC/C to normal cell proliferation and development, underscoring its possible contribution to transformation. We will also examine the hypothesis that modulating a specific interaction of the APC/C may be therapeutically attractive in specific cancer subtypes. Finally, given that the APC/C pathway is relatively new as a cancer target, therapeutic interventions affecting APC/C activity may be beneficial in cancers that are resistant to classical chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clara Penas
- John P. Hussman Institute for Human Genomics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Wang Z, Fukushima H, Inuzuka H, Wan L, Liu P, Gao D, Sarkar FH, Wei W. Skp2 is a promising therapeutic target in breast cancer. Front Oncol 2012; 1. [PMID: 22279619 PMCID: PMC3263529 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2011.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer among American women, and remains the second leading cause of cancer-related death for female in the United States. It has been known that several signaling pathways and various factors play critical roles in the development and progression of breast cancer, such as estrogen receptor, Notch, PTEN, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, PI3K/Akt, BRCA1, and BRCA2. Emerging evidence has shown that the F-box protein S-phase kinase associated protein 2 (Skp2) also plays an important role in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. Therefore, in this brief review, we summarize the novel functions of Skp2 in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. Moreover, we provide further evidence regarding the state of our knowledge toward the development of novel Skp2 inhibitors especially natural "chemopreventive agents" as targeted approach for the prevention and/or treatment of breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Wang Z, Gao D, Fukushima H, Inuzuka H, Liu P, Wan L, Sarkar FH, Wei W. Skp2: a novel potential therapeutic target for prostate cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2011; 1825:11-7. [PMID: 21963805 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed tumor in men and the second most common cause of cancer-related death for males in the United States. It has been shown that multiple signaling pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer, such as androgen receptor (AR), Akt, Wnt, Hedgehog (Hh) and Notch. Recently, burgeoning amounts of evidence have implicated that the F-box protein Skp2 (S-phase kinase associated protein 2), a well-characterized oncoprotein, also plays a critical role in the development and progression of prostate cancer. Therefore, this review discusses the recent literature regarding the function and regulation of Skp2 in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Furthermore, we highlight that Skp2 may represent an attractive therapeutic target, thus warrants further development of agents to target Skp2, which could have significant therapeutic impact on prostate cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Qiao X, Zhang L, Gamper AM, Fujita T, Wan Y. APC/C-Cdh1: from cell cycle to cellular differentiation and genomic integrity. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:3904-12. [PMID: 20935501 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.19.13585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is a multifunctional ubiquitin-protein ligase that targets various substrates for proteolysis inside and outside of the cell cycle. The activation of APC/C is dependent on two WD-40 domain proteins, Cdc20 and Cdh1. While APC/Cdc20 principally regulates mitotic progression, APC/Cdh1 shows a broad spectrum of substrates in and beyond cell cycle. In the past several years, numerous biochemical and mouse genetic studies have greatly attracted our attention to the emerging role of APC/Cdh1 in genomic integrity, cellular differentiation and human diseases. This review will aim to summarize the recently expanded understanding of APC/Cdh1 in regulating biological function and how its dysfunction may lead to diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinxian Qiao
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wang S, Raven JF, Koromilas AE. STAT1 represses Skp2 gene transcription to promote p27Kip1 stabilization in Ras-transformed cells. Mol Cancer Res 2010; 8:798-805. [PMID: 20407011 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-10-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2) is an F-box protein that serves as a subunit of the Skp1-Cullin-F-box ubiquitin protein ligase complex. Skp2 is overexpressed in many tumors and promotes tumor formation through its ability to induce the degradation of proteins with antiproliferative and tumor-suppressor functions, such as p27(Kip1). The signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) is a key regulator of the immune system through its capacity to act downstream of interferons. STAT1 exhibits tumor-suppressor properties by inhibiting oncogenic pathways and promoting tumor immunosurveillance. Previous work established the antitumor function of STAT1 in Ras-transformed cells through the induction of p27(Kip1) at the transcriptional level. Herein, we unveil a novel pathway used by STAT1 to upregulate p27(Kip1). Specifically, we show that STAT1 impedes Skp2 gene transcription by binding to Skp2 promoter DNA in vitro and in vivo. Decreased Skp2 expression by STAT1 is accompanied by the increased stability of p27(Kip1) in Ras-transformed cells. We further show that impaired expression of STAT1 in human colon cancer cells containing an activated form of K-Ras is associated with the upregulation of Skp2 and downregulation of p27(Kip1). Our study identifies Skp2 as a new target gene of STAT1 in Ras-transformed cells with profound implications in cell transformation and tumorigenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Wang
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital, Room 508, 3999 Cote Ste-Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3T 1E2.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|