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Eriksen EØ, Sejersen MF, Pedersen KS. The cotton swab method: an accurate and less invasive way to assess fecal consistency in weaned pigs. BMC Vet Res 2024; 20:47. [PMID: 38310282 PMCID: PMC10837864 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-024-03888-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Researchers and pig veterinarians are interested in assessing pigs' fecal consistency. This study developed a standardized protocol and scale for the cotton swab method, which is a way of assessing the fecal consistency in pigs. The accuracy of the cotton swab method was evaluated in weaned pigs using fecal dry-matter analysis as a golden standard. The study also proposed fecal dry-matter percentage thresholds for the categorization of fecal consistency on a four-point scale. RESULTS The thresholds of 10.3%, 16.6%, and 21.9% fecal dry-matter were suggested for categorization of the consistency of fecal samples on a four-point scale. The accuracy of the cotton swab method was high. The agreement to the four-point fecal consistency score derived from the fecal dry-matter percentage was almost perfect (weighted Gwet's agreement coefficient = 0.87 [95% confidence interval: 0.84; 0.91]). The cotton swab method had a sensitivity of 85.0% (95% confidence interval: 76.5; 91.4) and a specificity of 95.2% (95% confidence interval: 92.0; 97.3) when used to diagnose whether pigs had diarrhea or not. For non-diarrheic pigs, the method almost always (n = 287/289) required less handling than the collection of a fecal sample by digital rectal manipulation. CONCLUSION The cotton swab method is an accurate way to assess fecal consistency in pigs, both on a four-point scale and as a dichotomous diarrhea score. The method is quick to perform and less invasive than methods relying on the collection of fecal samples. New fecal dry-matter thresholds between feces of different consistencies were proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esben Østergaard Eriksen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Production Nutrition and Health, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 2, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
- The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Elizabeth Stephansens vei 15, 1433, Ås, Norway.
| | - Martin Friis Sejersen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Production Nutrition and Health, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 2, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Ken Steen Pedersen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Production Nutrition and Health, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 2, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Ø-Vet, Køberupvej 33, 4700, Næstved, Denmark
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Eriksen EØ, Kudirkiene E, Barington K, Goecke NB, Blirup-Plum SA, Nielsen JP, Olsen JE, Jensen HE, Pankoke K, Larsen LE, Liu G, Pedersen KS. An observational field study of porcine post-weaning diarrhea: clinical and microbiological findings, and fecal pH-measurements as a potential diagnostic tool. Porcine Health Manag 2023; 9:33. [PMID: 37434248 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-023-00325-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, in-feed medicinal zinc has been phased out in pig production in the European Union. This makes updated knowledge about porcine post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) crucial. The objectives of the present study were to investigate (i) the clinical presentation of PWD in pigs housed in Danish herds that did not use medicinal zinc, specifically the prevalence of diarrhea and whether PWD was associated to clinical signs of dehydration or altered body temperature; (ii) which microorganism are associated to PWD; and iii) whether measurements of the fecal pH have a potential to be used diagnostically to differentiate between infectious etiologies in cases of PWD. RESULTS The prevalence of diarrhea varied considerably between the outbreaks in the nine studied herds (median = 0.58, range = 0.10; 0.94). In a cross-sectional design (n = 923), diarrhea was associated with reduced rectal temperature and alkaline feces. Diarrhea was also associated with observably reduced skin elasticity, possibly indicating dehydration. In both diarrheic case pigs (n = 87) and control pigs (n = 86), the presence of Brachyspira pilosicoli, Clostridium perfringens, Cryptosporidium spp., Cystoisopora suis, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Lawsonia intracellularis, porcine circovirus types 2 and 3, rotavirus A, B, C, and H, Samonella enterica spp. enterica, and Trichuris suis was described. PWD was associated with high levels of enterotoxigenic E. coli shedding (odds ratio versus no E. coli detection = 4.79 [CI 1.14; 12.62]). Diarrhea was associated with high levels of rotavirus A shedding (odds ratio versus no/low rotavirus A = 3.80 [CI 1.33; 7.97]). The association between microbiological findings in diarrheic pigs and fecal pH was negligible. CONCLUSIONS Enterotoxigenic E. coli was confirmed to be a cause of PWD; however, cases of PWD where enterotoxigenic E. coli was not detected in high levels occurred commonly, and this adds to the increasing evidence suggesting that PWD is not necessarily a result of enteric colibacillosis. Rotaviral enteritis might be a differential diagnosis of PWD. pH-measurements cannot be used to differentiate between differential diagnoses for PWD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esben Østergaard Eriksen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Egle Kudirkiene
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Kristiane Barington
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Nicole Bakkegård Goecke
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Sophie Amalie Blirup-Plum
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Jens Peter Nielsen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - John Elmerdahl Olsen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Henrik Elvang Jensen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Karen Pankoke
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Lars Erik Larsen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Gang Liu
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Ken Steen Pedersen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, 1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Ø-Vet A/S, Køberupvej 33, 4700, Næstved, Denmark
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Luise D, Chalvon-Demersay T, Lambert W, Bosi P, Trevisi P. Meta-analysis to evaluate the impact of the reduction of dietary crude protein on the gut health of post-weaning pigs. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/1828051x.2021.1952911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Luise
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | | | - Paolo Bosi
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Trevisi
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Olson A, Sischo WM, Berge ACB, Adams-Progar A, Moore DA. A retrospective cohort study comparing dairy calf treatment decisions by farm personnel with veterinary observations of clinical signs. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:6391-6403. [PMID: 31030920 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobials are frequently administered to calves with diarrhea, despite evidence suggesting questionable efficacy. Even if efficacious, providing the appropriate therapy to an animal requires accurate disease detection. The objective of this study was to use previously collected data and compare clinical scoring by a veterinarian to treatment decisions by on-farm personnel. Data describing daily clinical scores and farm treatments were previously collected from 4 farms for calves from birth to age 28 d. In this data set, a total of 460 calves were enrolled. Daily observations and clinical assessments were made on each farm by the same veterinarian, for a total of 12,101 calf observation days. Farm personnel made all treatment decisions based on their own observations, and these treatments were recorded by study personnel. Overall, the cumulative incidence of a calf exhibiting at least one abnormal clinical sign over the 28-d observation period was 0.93, with cumulative incidences of 0.85 and 0.33 for diarrhea and dehydration, respectively. The cumulative incidence of any treatment (including antibiotics and electrolytes) was 0.85, although the majority of treatments used an antimicrobial. The farm-specific probabilities that a calf with clinical signs of dehydration or diarrhea, respectively, received fluid or electrolyte therapy ranged from 0.08 to 0.27 and 0.03 to 0.12. These probabilities were greater for the day a clinical sign was first observed. The farm-specific probabilities that a calf with clinical signs of diarrhea received an antimicrobial was 0.23 to 0.65, and the probability that a calf exhibiting clinical signs of respiratory disease received an antimicrobial was 0.33 to 0.76. The first observation of diarrhea had similar probabilities to those for all observations of diarrhea. There was greater probability of treatment for calves with their first observed abnormal respiratory signs. Probabilities that treatment with antimicrobials, or fluids or electrolytes, was associated with an abnormal clinical sign were low-that is, calves received treatments in the absence of any abnormal clinical signs. This study illustrates incongruity between treatment decisions by calf treaters (the designated personnel on each farm responsible for calf health assessment and treatment decisions) and those of an observer using a clinical scoring system to identify calves with abnormal clinical signs. These findings indicate opportunities and the need for dairy farmers and advisors to evaluate calf treatment protocols, reasons for treatment, and training programs for calf health and disease detection, as well as to develop monitoring programs for treatment protocol compliance and health outcomes following therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Olson
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164
| | - W M Sischo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164
| | - A C B Berge
- Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - A Adams-Progar
- Department of Animal Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164
| | - D A Moore
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman 99164.
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Lhermie G, Gröhn YT, Raboisson D. Addressing Antimicrobial Resistance: An Overview of Priority Actions to Prevent Suboptimal Antimicrobial Use in Food-Animal Production. Front Microbiol 2017; 7:2114. [PMID: 28111568 PMCID: PMC5216048 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.02114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing concern regarding emergence of bacteria resistant to antimicrobials and their potential for transmission to humans via animal production has led various authorities worldwide to implement measures to decrease antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock production. These measures are influenced by those implemented in human medicine, and emphasize the importance of antimicrobial stewardship, surveillance, infection prevention and control and research. In food producing animals, unlike human medicine, antimicrobials are used to control diseases which cause economic losses. This major difference may explain the failure of the public policies implemented to control antimicrobial usage. Here we first review the specific factors influencing AMU across the farm animal sector and highlighting the farmers' decision-making process of AMU. We then discuss the efficiency of existing regulations implemented by policy makers, and assess the need for alternative strategies, such as substitution between antimicrobials and other measures for infectious disease control. We also discuss the interests of regulating antimicrobial prices. Finally, we emphasize the value of optimizing antimicrobial regimens, and developing veterinary precision medicine to achieve clinical efficacy in animals while limiting negative impacts on public health. The fight against antimicrobial resistance requires both a reduction and an optimization of antimicrobial consumption. The set of actions currently implemented by policy makers does not adequately address the economic interests of farmers' use of antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Lhermie
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, IthacaNY, USA
- BioEpar, Oniris, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)Nantes, France
| | - Yrjö T. Gröhn
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, IthacaNY, USA
| | - Didier Raboisson
- Interactions Hôtes Agents Pathogènes, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) – Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire Toulouse, Université de ToulouseToulouse, France
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