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Chimfwembe K, Shirley H, Baker N, Wamai R. Zambia: A Narrative Review of Success and Challenges in Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:21. [PMID: 38251218 PMCID: PMC10820422 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The establishment of the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) to stop the transmission of infection has significantly reduced the incidence of lymphatic filariasis, a debilitating mosquito-borne neglected tropical disease. The primary strategies that have been employed include mass drug administration (MDA) of anthelminthics and morbidity management and disability prevention (MMDP). While some countries have been able to reach elimination status in Africa, there is still active transmission of LF in Zambia. The nematode responsible for the disease is Wuchereria bancrofti, which is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. To alleviate the suffering of those infected by the disease, the Zambian Ministry of Health launched a program to eliminate LF as a public health problem in 2003. This project reviewed the efforts to achieve the elimination of LF in Zambia, past and present government policies, and the anticipated challenges. MDAs have been conducted since 2014 and coverage has been between 87% and 92%. Zambia has now moved towards pre-transmission assessment surveys (PRETAS) and transmission assessment surveys (TAS). MMDP is a major priority and planned to be conducted between 2022 and 2026. COVID-19 presented a new challenge in the control of LF, while climate change, immigration, co-infections, and funding limitations will complicate further progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kingford Chimfwembe
- Department of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Chreso University, Lusaka 37178, Zambia;
- Ministry of Health, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
| | - Hugh Shirley
- Program in Medical Education, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- African Center for Community Investment in Health, Nginyang P.O. Box 48-30404, Kenya;
| | - Natalie Baker
- Program in Medical Education, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Richard Wamai
- African Center for Community Investment in Health, Nginyang P.O. Box 48-30404, Kenya;
- Integrate Initiative for Global Health, Department of Cultures, Societies and Global Studies, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Global and Public Health, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
- Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Federal Ministry of Health, Lagos 101212, Nigeria
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Matapo BB, Mpabalwani EM, Kaonga P, Simuunza MC, Bakyaita N, Masaninga F, Siyumbwa N, Siziya S, Shamilimo F, Muzongwe C, Mwase ET, Sikasunge CS. Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Status: Wuchereria bancrofti Infections in Human Populations after Five Effective Rounds of Mass Drug Administration in Zambia. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:333. [PMID: 37505629 PMCID: PMC10383567 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8070333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis (LF), also commonly known as elephantiasis, is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) caused by filarial parasites. The disease is transmitted via a bite from infected mosquitoes. The bites of these infected mosquitoes deposit filarial parasites, Wuchereria or Brugia, whose predilection site is the lymphatic system. The damage to the lymph system causes swelling in the legs, arms, and genitalia. A mapping survey conducted between 2003 and 2011 determined LF as being endemic in Zambia in 96 out of 116 districts. Elimination of LF is known to be possible by stopping the spread of the infection through large-scale preventive chemotherapy. Therefore, mass drug administration (MDA) with diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) (6 mg/kg) and Albendazole (400 mg) for Zambia has been conducted and implemented in all endemic districts with five effective rounds. In order to determine whether LF prevalence has been sufficiently reduced to levels less than 2% antigenemia and less than 1% microfilaremia, a pre-transmission assessment survey (pre-TAS) was conducted. Therefore, post-MDA pre-TAS was conducted between 2021 and 2022 in 80 districts to determine the LF prevalence. We conducted a cross-sectional seroprevalence study involving 600 participants in each evaluation unit (EU) or each district. The study sites (sentinel and spot-check sites) were from districts that were the implementation units (IUs) of the LF MDA. These included 80 districts from the 9 provinces. A total of 47,235 people from sentinel and spot-check locations were tested. Of these, valid tests were 47,052, of which 27,762 (59%) were females and 19,290 (41%) were males. The survey revealed in the 79/80 endemic districts a prevalence of Wb antigens of 0.14% and 0.0% prevalence of microfilariae. All the surveyed districts had an optimum prevalence of less than 2% for antigenaemia, except for Chibombo district. The majority of participants that tested positive for Wuchereria bancrofti (Wb) Antigens (Ag) were those that had 2, 3, and 4 rounds of MDA. Surprisingly, individuals that had 1 round of MDA were not found to have circulating antigens of Wb. The study showed that all the surveyed districts, except for Chibombo, passed pre-TAS. This further implies that there is a need to conduct transmission assessment surveys (TASs) in these districts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belem Blamwell Matapo
- School of Public Health, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia
- World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia
| | - Evans Mwila Mpabalwani
- School of Medicine, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia
| | - Patrick Kaonga
- School of Public Health, University of Zambia, Ridgeway Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 50516, Zambia
| | - Martin Chitolongo Simuunza
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia
| | - Nathan Bakyaita
- World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia
| | - Freddie Masaninga
- World Health Organization, Corner Andrew Mwenya/Beit Road, Lusaka P.O. Box 32346, Zambia
| | - Namasiku Siyumbwa
- Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia
| | - Seter Siziya
- Michael Chilufya Sata School of Medicine, Copperbelt University, Ndola P.O. Box 71191, Zambia
| | - Frank Shamilimo
- Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia
| | - Chilweza Muzongwe
- Ministry of Health Headquarters Ndeke House, Lusaka P.O. Box 30205, Zambia
| | - Enala T. Mwase
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia
| | - Chummy Sikalizyo Sikasunge
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Great East Road Campus, Lusaka P.O. Box 32379, Zambia
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How community engagement strategies shape participation in mass drug administration programmes for lymphatic filariasis: The case of Luangwa District, Zambia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007861. [PMID: 31774820 PMCID: PMC6905562 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The success of the global strategy to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF) through mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns is dependent on meeting high coverage levels over long periods of time. Community engagement plays a critical role in driving coverage and involvement of local communities in MDA for LF. This study explored how community engagement approaches used in MDA for LF shape participation in the programme, with a view of proposing effective engagement strategies. Methods The study was conducted in Luangwa, a rural District of Lusaka province, Zambia. An exploratory qualitative case study approach was employed. A total of nine focus group discussions, six in-depth and seven key informant interviews were conducted with various participants that included; community members, traditional leaders and programme managers, respectively. Data were analysed using a thematic approach, aided by NVivo 10 software. Results Three core thematic areas emerged from the data as priority focus areas for programme planners and implementers in designing effective community engagement strategies that facilitate participation. Firstly, employing of partnership approaches through adequate and timely engagement of traditional, government and non-governmental organisation structures. Secondly, use of appropriate and innovative health education initiatives to disseminate information about the programme. Thirdly, addressing context specific programme implementation barriers affecting community engagement in MDA for LF. Conclusion Facilitating participation in MDA for LF will require designing and implementing effective community engagement strategies that take into account local context, but also seek to explore all avenues of maximizing participation for improved coverage levels. MDA for LF implementation teams should systematically consider the identified factors and seek to incorporate them in their implementation plans. The lymphatic filariasis (LF) parasite is highly prevalent in many parts of Zambia, with almost 10 million people at risk of infection. Country wide mapping between 2003 and 2011 showed a high prevalence ranging from 1–54% of the circulating filarial antigen, dictating the implementation of mass drug administration (MDA). MDA for LF was first piloted in Kalabo District, Western Province in 2015 and was later scaled up to other provinces in 2016. MDA for LF programmes have reported lots of challenges in attaining required coverage levels in many settings, particularly during the early rounds of implementation. Community engagement processes during MDA for LF programme implementation have a key role to play in driving coverage and participation. However, engagement processes and their influence on participation in MDA for LF programs are rarely documented in most instances. This study was conducted in 2017 with a key focus on the engagement process employed in the first (2016) and second rounds (2017) of MDA for LF and how they influenced participation in the programme. We also sought to identify some key constraints to engagement of local communities in the study site, Luangwa district, Lusaka Province.
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Srividya A, Subramanian S, Jambulingam P, Vijayakumar B, Dinesh Raja J. Mapping and monitoring for a lymphatic filariasis elimination program: a systematic review. Res Rep Trop Med 2019; 10:43-90. [PMID: 31239804 PMCID: PMC6554002 DOI: 10.2147/rrtm.s134186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is targeted for elimination by the year 2020. The Global Programme for Elimination of LF (GPELF) aims to achieve elimination by interrupting transmission through annual mass drug administration (MDA) of albendazole with ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine. The program has successfully eliminated the disease in 11 of the 72 endemic countries, putting in enormous efforts on systematic planning and implementation of the strategy. Mapping areas endemic for LF is a pre-requisite for implementing MDA, monitoring and evaluation are the components of programme implementation. This review was undertaken to assess how the mapping and impact monitoring activities have evolved to become more robust over the years and steered the LF elimination programme towards its goal. The findings showed that the WHO recommended mapping strategy aided 17 countries to delimit, plan and implement MDA in only those areas endemic for LF thereby saving resources. Availability of serological tools for detecting infection in humans (antigen/antibody assays) and molecular xenomonitoring (MX) in vectors greatly facilitated programme monitoring and evaluation in endemic countries. Results of this review are discussed on how these existing mapping and monitoring procedures can be used for re-mapping of unsurveyed and uncertain areas to ensure there is no resurgence during post-MDA surveillance. Further the appropriateness of the tests (Microfilaria (Mf)/antigenemia (Ag)/antibody(Ab) surveys in humans or MX of vectors for infection) used currently for post-MDA surveillance and their role in the development of a monitoring and evaluation strategy for the recently WHO recommended triple drug regimen in MDA for accelerated LF elimination are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adinarayanan Srividya
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Operations Research, ICMR - Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
| | - Swaminathan Subramanian
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Operations Research, ICMR - Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
| | - Purushothaman Jambulingam
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Operations Research, ICMR - Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
| | - Balakrishnan Vijayakumar
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Operations Research, ICMR - Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
| | - Jeyapal Dinesh Raja
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Operations Research, ICMR - Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry, India
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Won KY, Sambou S, Barry A, Robinson K, Jaye M, Sanneh B, Sanyang A, Gass K, Lammie PJ, Rebollo M. Use of Antibody Tools to Provide Serologic Evidence of Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis in The Gambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 98:15-20. [PMID: 29165213 PMCID: PMC5928708 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
A current need in the global effort to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF) is the availability of reliable diagnostic tools that can be used to guide programmatic decisions, especially decisions made in the final stages of the program. This study conducted in The Gambia aimed to assess antifilarial antibody levels among populations living in historically highly LF-endemic areas and to evaluate the use of serologic tools to confirm the interruption of LF transmission. A total of 2,612 dried blood spots (DBSs) collected from individuals aged 1 year and above from 15 villages were tested for antibodies to Wb123 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A subset of DBS (N = 599) was also tested for antibodies to Bm14 by ELISA. Overall, the prevalence of Wb123 was low (1.5%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-2.1%). In 7 of 15 villages (46.7%), there were no Wb123-positive individuals identified. Individuals with positive responses to Wb123 ranged in age from 3 to 100 years. Overall, Bm14 prevalence was also low (1.5%, 95% CI 0.7-2.8%). Bm14 positivity was significantly associated with older age (P < 0.001). The low levels of antibody responses to Wb123 observed in our study strongly suggest that sustainable LF transmission has likely ceased in The Gambia. In addition, our results support the conclusion that serologic tools can have a role in guiding programmatic decision making and supporting surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly Y Won
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sana Sambou
- Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Banjul, The Gambia
| | - Amanda Barry
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Keri Robinson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Momodou Jaye
- Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Banjul, The Gambia
| | - Bakary Sanneh
- Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Banjul, The Gambia
| | | | | | - Patrick J Lammie
- Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, Georgia.,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Nsakashalo-Senkwe M, Mwase E, Chizema-Kawesha E, Mukonka V, Songolo P, Masaninga F, Rebollo M, Thomas B, Bockarie M, Betts H, Stothard J, Kelly-Hope L. Significant decline in lymphatic filariasis associated with nationwide scale-up of insecticide-treated nets in Zambia. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2017; 2:7-14. [PMID: 29774291 PMCID: PMC5952671 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a mosquito-borne disease, broadly endemic in Zambia, and is targeted for elimination by mass drug administration (MDA) of albendazole and diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) to at-risk populations. Anopheline mosquitoes are primary vectors of LF in Africa, and it is possible that the significant scale-up of malaria vector control over the past decade may have also impacted LF transmission, and contributed to a decrease in prevalence in Zambia. We therefore aimed to examine the putative association between decreasing LF prevalence and increasing coverage of insecticide-treated mosquito nets (ITNs) for malaria vector control, by comparing LF mapping data collected between 2003-2005 and 2009-2011 to LF sentinel site prevalence data collected between 2012 and 2014, before any anti-LF MDA was started. The coverage of ITNs for malaria was quantified and compared for each site in relation to the dynamics of LF. We found a significant decrease in LF prevalence from the years 2003-2005 (11.5% CI95 6.6; 16.4) to 2012-2014 (0.6% CI95 0.03; 1.1); at the same time, there was a significant scale-up of ITNs across the country from 0.2% (CI95 0.0; 0.3) to 76.1% (CI95 71.4; 80.7) respectively. The creation and comparison of two linear models demonstrated that the geographical and temporal variation in ITN coverage was a better predictor of LF prevalence than year alone. Whilst a causal relationship between LF prevalence and ITN coverage cannot be proved, we propose that the scale-up of ITNs has helped to control Anopheles mosquito populations, which have in turn impacted on LF transmission significantly before the scale-up of MDA. This putative synergy with vector control has helped to put Zambia on track to meet national and global goals of LF elimination by 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nsakashalo-Senkwe
- Ministry of Health, P.O. Box 30205, Lusaka, Zambia
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - E. Mwase
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | | | - V. Mukonka
- Ministry of Health, P.O. Box 30205, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - P. Songolo
- WHO Country Office, World Health Organisation, P.O. Box 32346, Ridgeway, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - F. Masaninga
- WHO Country Office, World Health Organisation, P.O. Box 32346, Ridgeway, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - M.P. Rebollo
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - B. Thomas
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - M.J. Bockarie
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - H. Betts
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - J.R. Stothard
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - L.A. Kelly-Hope
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
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Concordance between Plasma and Filter Paper Sampling Techniques for the Lymphatic Filariasis Bm14 Antibody ELISA. Trop Med Infect Dis 2017; 2:tropicalmed2020006. [PMID: 30270865 PMCID: PMC6082080 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed2020006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Diagnostic testing for the antibody Bm14 is used to assess the prevalence of bancroftian and brugian filariasis in endemic populations. Using dried blood spots (DBS) collected on filter paper is ideal in resource-poor settings, but concerns have been raised about the performance of DBS samples compared to plasma or serum. In addition, two versions of the test have been used: the Bm14 CELISA (Cellabs Pty Ltd., Manly, Australia) or an in-house CDC version. Due to recent improvements in the CELISA, it is timely to validate the latest versions of the Bm14 ELISA for both plasma and DBS, especially in settings of residual infection with low antibody levels. We tested plasma and DBS samples taken simultaneously from 92 people in Myanmar, of whom 37 (40.2%) were positive in a rapid antigen test. Comparison of results from plasma and DBS samples demonstrated no significant difference in positive proportions using both the CELISA (46.7% and 44.6%) and CDC ELISA (50.0% and 47.8%). Quantitative antibody unit results from each sample type were also highly correlated, with coefficients >0.87. The results of this study demonstrate that DBS samples are a valid collection strategy and give equivalent results to plasma for Bm14 antibody ELISA testing by either test type.
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8
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Wanji S, Kengne-Ouafo JA, Datchoua-Poutcheu FR, Njouendou AJ, Tayong DB, Sofeu-Feugaing DD, Amvongo-Adjia N, Fovennso BA, Longang-Tchounkeu YF, Tekola-Ayele F, Enyong PA, Newport MJ, Davey G. Detecting and staging podoconiosis cases in North West Cameroon: positive predictive value of clinical screening of patients by community health workers and researchers. BMC Public Health 2016; 16:997. [PMID: 27650390 PMCID: PMC5029032 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3669-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The suitability of using clinical assessment to identify patients with podoconiosis in endemic communities has previously been demonstrated. In this study, we explored the feasibility and accuracy of using Community Health Implementers (CHIs) for the large scale clinical screening of the population for podoconiosis in North-west Cameroon. Methods Before a regional podoconiosis mapping, 193 CHIs and 50 health personnel selected from 6 health districts were trained in the clinical diagnosis of the disease. After training, CHIs undertook community screening for podoconiosis patients under health personnel supervision. Identified cases were later re-examined by a research team with experience in the clinical identification of podoconiosis. Results Cases were identified by CHIs with an overall positive predictive value (PPV) of 48.5% [34.1–70%]. They were more accurate in detecting advanced stages of the disease compared to early stages; OR 2.07, 95% CI = 1.15–3.73, p = 0.015 for all advanced stages). Accuracy of detecting cases showed statistically significant differences among health districts (χ2 = 25.30, p = 0.0001). Conclusion Podoconiosis being a stigmatized disease, the use of CHIs who are familiar to the community appears appropriate for identifying cases through clinical diagnosis. However, to improve their effectiveness and accuracy, more training, supervision and support are required. More emphasis must be given in identifying early clinical stages and in health districts with relatively lower PPVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Wanji
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon. .,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon.
| | - Jonas A Kengne-Ouafo
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon
| | | | - Abdel Jelil Njouendou
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon
| | - Dizzel Bita Tayong
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon
| | - David D Sofeu-Feugaing
- Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Nathalie Amvongo-Adjia
- Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon.,Laboratory of Parasitology and Ecology, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, University of Yaoundé I, Yaounde, Cameroon
| | - Bridget A Fovennso
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon
| | | | - Fasil Tekola-Ayele
- Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Peter A Enyong
- Parasites and Vector Biology research unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), Buea, Cameroon
| | - Melanie J Newport
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Global Health Research, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer Campus, Brighton, BN1 9PX, UK
| | - Gail Davey
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Global Health Research, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer Campus, Brighton, BN1 9PX, UK
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Damgaard J, Meyrowitsch DW, Rwegoshora RT, Magesa SM, Mukoko DA, Simonsen PE. Assessing drivers of the IgG4 antibody reactivity to recombinant antigen Bm14 in Wuchereria bancrofti endemic populations in East Africa. Acta Trop 2016; 161:26-32. [PMID: 27172877 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A high proportion of the human population in lymphatic filariasis (LF) endemic areas is positive for filarial specific IgG4 antibodies, including many individuals without microfilariae (mf; circulating larvae in the human blood) or circulating filarial antigens (CFA; marker of adult worm infection). The antibodies are commonly regarded as markers of infection and/or exposure to filarial larvae, but a direct association between the antibodies and these indices has not been well documented. The present study assessed the role and relative effect of potential drivers of the human IgG4 antibody reactivity to the recombinant filarial antigen Bm14 in Wuchereria bancrofti endemic populations in East Africa. Sera collected during previous studies from 395 well characterized individuals with regard to age, sex, mf, CFA, household vector biting and household exposure to infective filarial larvae were tested for IgG4 antibodies to Bm14, and associations between antibody reactivity and the different variables were statistically analyzed. IgG4 reactivity to Bm14 was highly positively associated with CFA, and to a lesser extent with age. However, an expected association with household exposure to infective filarial larvae was not found. Bm14 antibody reactivity thus appeared mainly to reflect actual infection of individuals with adult filarial worms rather than ongoing exposure to transmission. The analyses moreover suggested that many of the CFA negative but Bm14 positive individuals had early or low level infections where antibodies had been induced but where CFA was not (yet?) measurable. Although the study indicated that IgG4 reactivity to Bm14 is a marker of filarial infection, assessment of this reactivity, especially in children, will still be useful for indirect monitoring of changes in transmission intensity, including break of transmission and post-elimination surveillance, in LF control.
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10
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Tafatatha TT, Ngwira BM, Taegtmeyer M, Phiri AJ, Wilson TP, Banda LG, Piston WN, Koole O, Horton J, French N. Randomised controlled clinical trial of increased dose and frequency of albendazole and ivermectin onWuchereria bancroftimicrofilarial clearance in northern Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2015; 109:393-9. [DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trv027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Al-Abd NM, Nor ZM, Ahmed A, Al-Adhroey AH, Mansor M, Kassim M. Lymphatic filariasis in Peninsular Malaysia: a cross-sectional survey of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of residents. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:545. [PMID: 25428558 PMCID: PMC4253608 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0545-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a major cause of permanent disability in many tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world. Malaysia is one of the countries in which LF is an endemic disease. Five rounds of the mass drug administration (MDA) program have been conducted in Malaysia as part of the Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) by year 2020. This study investigated the level of awareness of LF and the MDA program in a population living in an endemic area of the country. METHODS A descriptive cross-sectional survey that involved 230 respondents (≥15 years old) living in the LF endemic communities of Terengganu state in Peninsular Malaysia was performed. Demographic, socioeconomic, and knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) data of the respondents were obtained using pre-tested questionnaires and were analyzed using SPSS software version 13.0. RESULTS More than 80% of the respondents were aware of LF and the common symptoms of the disease. Moreover, about 70% of the respondents that were aware of LF indicated that it is a problematic disease. Approximately 77% of the respondents indicated that filariasis is transmitted by mosquitoes. Two-thirds of respondents preferred hospital treatment for illness; however, only 12% had participated and/or received treatment for LF during an MDA program. Only 35% of the respondents that participated in this research were aware of the MDA program that had taken place in the area. None of the respondents had knowledge of the drug used in the treatment of LF. The findings from this research indicated that there was no significant association between LF awareness and with gender, age group, educational status, occupation, or socio-economic status of the respondents (P >0.05). CONCLUSION A good proportion of the respondents are aware of LF, its mode of transmission and symptoms, however they demonstrated a poor knowledge of MDA which took place in the study area. For greater understanding of LF in the Malaysian population, there is a need for an enhancement in the delivery of health education and information programs and mass mobilization campaigns in endemic communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazeh M Al-Abd
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Zurainee Mohamed Nor
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Abdulhamid Ahmed
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Umaru Musa Yar'adua University, Katsina, Katsina State, Nigeria.
| | - Abdulelah H Al-Adhroey
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Marzida Mansor
- Department of Anesthesiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
| | - Mustafa Kassim
- Department of Anesthesiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
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Kivuyo HS, Mbazi PH, Kisika DS, Munga S, Rumisha SF, Urasa FM, Kweka EJ. Performance of five food regimes on Anopheles gambiae senso stricto larval rearing to adult emergence in insectary. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110671. [PMID: 25340408 PMCID: PMC4207715 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rearing of Anopheles gambiae s.s mosquitoes in insectary with quality cheap food sources is of paramount importance for better and healthy colony. This study evaluated larval survival and the development rate of aquatic stages of An.gambiae s.s under five food regimes; tetramin fish food (a standard insectary larval food), maize pollen, Cerelac, green filamentous algae and dry powdered filamentous algae. Methods Food materials were obtained from different sources, cerelac was made locally, fresh filamentous algae was taken from water bodies, dry filamentous algae was ground to powder after it was dried under shade, and maize pollen was collected from the flowering maize. Each food source type was used to feed three densities of mosquito larvae 20, 60, and 100 in six replicates each. Larval age structure was monitored daily until pupation and subsequently adult emergence. Tetramin was used and taken as a standard food source for An. gambiae s.s. larvae feeding in Insectary. Results Larval survivorship using maize pollen and Tetramin fish food was statistically insignificant (P = 0.564). However when compared to other food regime survivorship was significantly different with Tetramin fish food performing better than cerelac (P<0.001), dry algae (P<0.001) and fresh algae (P<0.001). The pupation rates and sex ratio of emerging adults had significant differences among the food regimes. Conclusion The findings of this study have shown that maize pollen had closely similar nutritional value for larval survivorship to tetramin fish food, a standard larvae food in insectary. Further studies are required to assess the effect of food sources on various life traits of the emerged adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Happiness S. Kivuyo
- Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Dar-es-salaam, Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
| | - Paschal H. Mbazi
- Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Dar-es-salaam, Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
| | - Denis S. Kisika
- Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Dar-es-salaam, Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
| | - Stephen Munga
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Susan F. Rumisha
- National Institute for Medical Research, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Felister M. Urasa
- Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Dar-es-salaam, Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
| | - Eliningaya J. Kweka
- Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, Division Of Livestock And Human Diseases Vector Control, Mosquito Section, Arusha, Tanzania
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, Mwanza, Tanzania
- * E-mail:
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13
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Sime H, Deribe K, Assefa A, Newport MJ, Enquselassie F, Gebretsadik A, Kebede A, Hailu A, Shafi O, Aseffa A, Reithinger R, Brooker SJ, Pullan RL, Cano J, Meribo K, Pavluck A, Bockarie MJ, Rebollo MP, Davey G. Integrated mapping of lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis: lessons learnt from Ethiopia. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:397. [PMID: 25164687 PMCID: PMC4153915 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization (WHO), international donors and partners have emphasized the importance of integrated control of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Integrated mapping of NTDs is a first step for integrated planning of programmes, proper resource allocation and monitoring progress of control. Integrated mapping has several advantages over disease specific mapping by reducing costs and enabling co-endemic areas to be more precisely identified. We designed and conducted integrated mapping of lymphatic filariasis (LF) and podoconiosis in Ethiopia; here we present the methods, challenges and lessons learnt. METHODS Integrated mapping of 1315 communities across Ethiopia was accomplished within three months. Within these communities, 129,959 individuals provided blood samples that were tested for circulating Wuchereria bancrofti antigen using immunochromatographic card tests (ICT). Wb123 antibody tests were used to further establish exposure to LF in areas where at least one ICT positive individual was detected. A clinical algorithm was used to reliably diagnose podoconiosis by excluding other potential causes of lymphoedema of the lower limb. RESULTS A total of 8110 individuals with leg swelling were interviewed and underwent physical examination. Smartphones linked to a central database were used to collect data, which facilitated real-time data entry and reduced costs compared to traditional paper-based data collection approach; their inbuilt Geographic Positioning System (GPS) function enabled simultaneous capture of geographical coordinates. The integrated approach led to efficient use of resources and rapid mapping of an enormous geographical area and was well received by survey staff and collaborators. Mobile based technology can be used for such large scale studies in resource constrained settings such as Ethiopia, with minimal challenges. CONCLUSIONS This was the first integrated mapping of podoconiosis and LF globally. Integrated mapping of podoconiosis and LF is feasible and, if properly planned, can be quickly achieved at nationwide scale.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kebede Deribe
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Falmer, Brighton, United Kingdom.
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Mwase ET, Stensgaard AS, Nsakashalo-Senkwe M, Mubila L, Mwansa J, Songolo P, Shawa ST, Simonsen PE. Mapping the geographical distribution of lymphatic filariasis in Zambia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2714. [PMID: 24587466 PMCID: PMC3930513 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Past case reports have indicated that lymphatic filariasis (LF) occurs in Zambia, but knowledge about its geographical distribution and prevalence pattern, and the underlying potential environmental drivers, has been limited. As a background for planning and implementation of control, a country-wide mapping survey was undertaken between 2003 and 2011. Here the mapping activities are outlined, the findings across the numerous survey sites are presented, and the ecological requirements of the LF distribution are explored. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Approximately 10,000 adult volunteers from 108 geo-referenced survey sites across Zambia were examined for circulating filarial antigens (CFA) with rapid format ICT cards, and a map indicating the distribution of CFA prevalences in Zambia was prepared. 78% of survey sites had CFA positive cases, with prevalences ranging between 1% and 54%. Most positive survey sites had low prevalence, but six foci with more than 15% prevalence were identified. The observed geographical variation in prevalence pattern was examined in more detail using a species distribution modeling approach to explore environmental requirements for parasite presence, and to predict potential suitable habitats over unsurveyed areas. Of note, areas associated with human modification of the landscape appeared to play an important role for the general presence of LF, whereas temperature (measured as averaged seasonal land surface temperature) seemed to be an important determinant of medium-high prevalence levels. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE LF was found to be surprisingly widespread in Zambia, although in most places with low prevalence. The produced maps and the identified environmental correlates of LF infection will provide useful guidance for planning and start-up of geographically targeted and cost-effective LF control in Zambia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enala T. Mwase
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Anna-Sofie Stensgaard
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Likezo Mubila
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - James Mwansa
- University Teaching Hospital, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | | | - Sheila T. Shawa
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Paul E. Simonsen
- Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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