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Marazziti D, Diep PT, Carter S, Carbone MG. Oxytocin: An Old Hormone, A Novel Psychotropic Drug And Possible Use In Treating Psychiatric Disorders. Curr Med Chem 2022; 29:5615-5687. [PMID: 35894453 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220727120646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxytocin is a nonapeptide synthesized in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Historically, this molecule has been involved as a key factor in the formation of infant attachment, maternal behavior and pair bonding and, more generally, in linking social signals with cognition, behaviors and reward. In the last decades, the whole oxytocin system has gained a growing interest as it was proposed to be implicated in etiopathogenesis of several neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. METHODS With the main goal of an in-depth understanding of the oxytocin role in the regulation of different functions and complex behaviors as well as its intriguing implications in different neuropsychiatric disorders, we performed a critical review of the current state of art. We carried out this work through PubMed database up to June 2021 with the search terms: 1) "oxytocin and neuropsychiatric disorders"; 2) "oxytocin and neurodevelopmental disorders"; 3) "oxytocin and anorexia"; 4) "oxytocin and eating disorders"; 5) "oxytocin and obsessive-compulsive disorder"; 6) "oxytocin and schizophrenia"; 7) "oxytocin and depression"; 8) "oxytocin and bipolar disorder"; 9) "oxytocin and psychosis"; 10) "oxytocin and anxiety"; 11) "oxytocin and personality disorder"; 12) "oxytocin and PTSD". RESULTS Biological, genetic, and epigenetic studies highlighted quality and quantity modifications in the expression of oxytocin peptide or in oxytocin receptor isoforms. These alterations would seem to be correlated with a higher risk of presenting several neuropsychiatric disorders belonging to different psychopathological spectra. Collaterally, the exogenous oxytocin administration has shown to ameliorate many neuropsychiatric clinical conditions. CONCLUSION Finally, we briefly analyzed the potential pharmacological use of oxytocin in patient with severe symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and immunoregulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Marazziti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, Italy.,Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences, Rome, Italy
| | - Phuoc-Tan Diep
- Department of Histopathology, Royal Lancaster Infirmary, University Hospitals of Morecambe Bay NHS Foundation Trust, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Sue Carter
- Director Kinsey Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Manuel G Carbone
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Division of Psychiatry, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy
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Interactive effects of OXTR and GAD1 on envy-associated behaviors and neural responses. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210493. [PMID: 30633779 PMCID: PMC6329522 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Inequity aversion (negative feelings induced by outcome differences between the self and other) plays a key role in human social behaviors. The neurotransmitters oxytocin and GABA have been implicated in neural responses to inequity. However, it remains poorly understood not only how individual genetic factors related to oxytocin and GABA affect the neural mechanisms behind inequity aversion, but also how these genes interact. To address these issues, we examined relationships between genotypes, behavioral decisions and brain activities during the ultimatum game. We identified interactive effects between the polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and glutamate decarboxylase 1 gene for GABA synthesis (GAD1) on envy aversion (i.e., disadvantageous inequity aversion) and on envy-induced activity in the dorsal ACC (dACC). Thus, our integrated approach suggested interactive genetic effects between OXTR and GAD1 on envy aversion and the underlying neural substrates.
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3
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Boo YJ, Park CI, Kim HW, Kim SJ, Kang JI. Possible Association of the Ubiquitin-Specific Peptidase 46 Gene (USP46) with Affective Temperamental Traits in Healthy Korean Volunteers. Psychiatry Investig 2019; 16:87-92. [PMID: 30605993 PMCID: PMC6354034 DOI: 10.30773/pi.2018.10.02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ubiquitin-specific peptidase 46 gene (USP46) polymorphisms is part of ubiquitin-proteasome system, which is responsible for dynamic cellular processes such as the regulation of cell cycle. USP46 has been reported to be associated with major depressive disorder. The objective of the present study was to investigate the association of USP46 polymorphisms with affective temperamental traits in healthy subjects. METHODS A total of 557 Korean healthy volunteers were recruited, and 545 subjects (328 male, 217 female) were included in the final analysis. The DNA of the subjects was isolated from saliva samples. Two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs346005, rs2244291 in USP46 were genotyped. Affective temperaments were assessed using the Korean version of Temperament Evaluation of the Memphis, Pisa, Paris, and San Diego Autoquestionnaire (TEMPS-A). RESULTS A significant association was found between rs346005 genotypes and TEMPS-A only in male subjects. In particular, subjects with the CC genotype of rs346005 showed a more depressive temperament than subjects with AA or CA genotypes in males. For rs2244291, there were no associations between the rs2244291 genotypes and TEMPS-A scores. CONCLUSION Some affective temperaments may serve as a genetic predisposing factors for affective disorders, such as depressive disorder, via vulnerability genes related to the ubiquitin-proteasome system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jun Boo
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chun Il Park
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Won Kim
- Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Medical Education, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Joo Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee In Kang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Sex-specific association of a common GNAS polymorphism with self-reported cognitive empathy in healthy volunteers. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206114. [PMID: 30365517 PMCID: PMC6203261 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In a recent study, we found associations of a common oxytocin receptor (OXTR) polymorphism with inter-individual differences in empathy, especially with emotional empathy in women. Many other studies found specific associations of oxytocin, arginine-vasopressin, serotonin and dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms with various aspects of trait empathy. As all these receptors belong to the guanine-binding protein (G protein) coupled receptor family, it is a reasonable assumption, that alterations in genes encoding G protein subunits also influence the signal transduction in empathy related circuits. However, to the best of our knowledge, these genomic variations have not yet been studied in genetic research on empathy. Methods Here, we analysed associations of a common polymorphism of the GNAS gene (C393T) in a previously characterized sample of 421 healthy blood donors (231 M, 190 F; age 18–74). The GNAS gene encodes the G protein adenylyl cyclase stimulator (Gαs) G protein subunit, which activates cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent pathways by stimulating the adenylyl cyclase. Cognitive and emotional aspects of dispositional empathy were tested using Davis’ Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Results In the complete sample, associations of C393T genotype with IRI empathy scores, including cognitive empathy (p = 0.055) and perspective taking (p = 0.057) scores did not reach a level of significance. None of the IRI scores was near to being significantly associated with C393T genotype for men alone. In females, however, genotype was significantly associated with cognitive empathy (r = -.204, p = 0.005) and perspective taking (r = -.209, p = 0.004), accounting for 4.2% and 4.4% of variability. The association of genotype with perspective taking remained significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons (p = 0.045). The 393C-allele, which had been identified as a risk factor in several medical conditions such as hypertension, obesity and diabetes, was associated with higher cognitive empathy compared to the T allele in our sample. Conclusions The results suggest a significant association of GNAS C393T genotypes with the cognitive empathic capacity of perspective taking. This association could only be found in female participants.
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Arahori M, Chijiiwa H, Takagi S, Bucher B, Abe H, Inoue-Murayama M, Fujita K. Microsatellite Polymorphisms Adjacent to the Oxytocin Receptor Gene in Domestic Cats: Association with Personality? Front Psychol 2017; 8:2165. [PMID: 29326623 PMCID: PMC5741686 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A growing number of studies have explored the oxytocin system in humans and non-human animals, and some have found important genetic polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) associated with the bonding system, social behaviors, and personality in several species. Although single nucleotide polymorphisms in OXTR have been well-examined in various species, microsatellites (or short tandem repeats) adjacent to OXTR have rarely been studied, despite some suggestions that microsatellite polymorphisms near genes might play a role in genetic transcription and translation. In this study, we surveyed microsatellites in the upstream, intron, and downstream regions of OXTR in domestic cats (Felis catus). We succeeded in amplifying 5 out of 10 regions, and recognized these five regions as polymorphic. We compared allele frequencies in these five regions between mongrel cats in Japan (n = 100) and cats of 10 pure breeds (n = 40). There were significant differences in allele frequencies between the two populations in all microsatellite regions. Additionally, the owners of mongrel cats answered a comprehensive personality questionnaire, and factor analysis extracted four factors (Openness, Friendliness, Roughness, and Neuroticism). We examined the association between the microsatellite genotypes, age, sex, neutering status, and personality scores. Compared to their counterparts, younger cats tended to score higher on Openness, male cats scored higher on Friendliness, and female and neutered cats scored higher on Roughness. When we divided the sample into three groups depending on the length of alleles, we found a marginally significant association between Friendliness and MS3. Additionally, we found a sex-mediated effect of genotypes in MS4 on Friendliness, resulting in different effects on females and males. Our findings that mongrel cats had longer alleles in MS3 and MS4 than purebred cats, and that those cats tended to score higher on Friendliness, supported the previous findings. However, future studies such as comparison between purebred cats with apparently different origin or personality are required to determine the association of genetic variants in the OXTR with personality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minori Arahori
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hitomi Chijiiwa
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Saho Takagi
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Benoit Bucher
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideaki Abe
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Miho Inoue-Murayama
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Wildlife Genome Collaborative Research Group, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Kazuo Fujita
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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6
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Abstract
In the present chapter, we review the literature focusing on oxytocin (OT)-centered research in anxiety spectrum conditions, comprising separation anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder (SAD), panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and anxiety-related endophenotypes (e.g., trust behavior, behavioral inhibition, neuroticism, and state/trait anxiety). OT receptor gene (OXTR) polymorphisms have been implicated in gene-environment interactions with attachment style and childhood maltreatment and to influence clinical outcomes, including SAD intensity and limbic responsiveness. Epigenetic OXTR DNA methylation patterns have emerged as a link between categorical, dimensional, neuroendocrinological, and neuroimaging SAD correlates, highlighting them as potential peripheral surrogates of the central oxytocinergic tone. A pathophysiological framework of OT integrating the dynamic nature of epigenetic biomarkers and the summarized genetic and peripheral evidence is proposed. Finally, we emphasize opportunities and challenges of OT as a key network node of social interaction and fear learning in social contexts. In conjunction with multi-level investigations incorporating a dimensional understanding of social affiliation and avoidance in anxiety spectrum disorders, these concepts will help to promote research for diagnostic, state, and treatment response biomarkers of the OT system, advancing towards indicated preventive interventions and personalized treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Gottschalk
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Margarete-Höppel-Platz 1, Würzburg, 97080, Germany
| | - Katharina Domschke
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Hauptstrasse 5, Freiburg im Breisgau, 79104, Germany.
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Wang J, Braskie MN, Hafzalla GW, Faskowitz J, McMahon KL, de Zubicaray GI, Wright MJ, Yu C, Thompson PM. Relationship of a common OXTR gene variant to brain structure and default mode network function in healthy humans. Neuroimage 2016; 147:500-506. [PMID: 28017919 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of research suggests that oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene polymorphisms may influence both social behaviors and psychiatric conditions related to social deficits, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), schizophrenia, and mood and anxiety disorders. However, the neural mechanism underlying these associations is still unclear. Relative to controls, patients with these psychiatric conditions show differences in brain structure, and in resting state fMRI (rs-fMRI) signal synchronicity among default mode network (DMN) regions (also known as functional connectivity). We used a stepwise imaging genetics approach in 328 healthy young adults to test the hypothesis that 10 SNPs in OXTR are associated with differences in DMN synchronicity and structure of some of the associated brain regions. As OXTR effects may be sex-dependent, we also tested whether our findings were modulated by sex. OXTR rs2254298 A allele carriers had significantly lower rsFC with PCC in a cluster extending from the right fronto-insular cortex to the putamen and globus pallidus, and in bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) compared to individuals with the GG genotype; all observed effects were found only in males. Moreover, compared to the male individuals with GG genotype ofrs2254298, the male A allele carriers demonstrated significantly thinner cortical gray matter in the bilateral dACC. Our findings suggest that there may be sexually dimorphic mechanisms by which a naturally occurring variation of the OXTR gene may influence brain structure and function in DMN-related regions implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junping Wang
- Imaging Genetics Center, Keck/USC School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA; Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 30052, China.
| | - Meredith N Braskie
- Imaging Genetics Center, Keck/USC School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - George W Hafzalla
- Imaging Genetics Center, Keck/USC School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Joshua Faskowitz
- Imaging Genetics Center, Keck/USC School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Katie L McMahon
- Center for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Greig I de Zubicaray
- Faculty of Health and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane QLD 4059, Australia
| | - Margaret J Wright
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chunshui Yu
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 30052, China
| | - Paul M Thompson
- Imaging Genetics Center, Keck/USC School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA.
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8
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Notzon S, Domschke K, Holitschke K, Ziegler C, Arolt V, Pauli P, Reif A, Deckert J, Zwanzger P. Attachment style and oxytocin receptor gene variation interact in influencing social anxiety. World J Biol Psychiatry 2016; 17:76-83. [PMID: 26488131 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2015.1091502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Social anxiety has been suggested to be promoted by an insecure attachment style. Oxytocin is discussed as a mediator of trust and social bonding as well as a modulator of social anxiety. Applying a gene-environment (G × E) interaction approach, in the present pilot study the main and interactive effects of attachment styles and oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene variation were probed in a combined risk factor model of social anxiety in healthy probands. METHODS Participants (N = 388; 219 females, 169 males; age 24.7 ± 4.7 years) were assessed for anxiety in social situations (Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory) depending on attachment style (Adult Attachment Scale, AAS) and OXTR rs53576 A/G genotype. RESULTS A less secure attachment style was significantly associated with higher social anxiety. This association was partly modulated by OXTR genotype, with a stronger negative influence of a less secure attachment style on social anxiety in A allele carriers as compared to GG homozygotes. CONCLUSIONS The present pilot data point to a strong association of less secure attachment and social anxiety as well as to a gene-environment interaction effect of OXTR rs53576 genotype and attachment style on social anxiety possibly constituting a targetable combined risk marker of social anxiety disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Notzon
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , University of Muenster , Muenster , Germany
| | - K Domschke
- b Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy , University of Wuerzburg , Wuerzburg , Germany
| | - K Holitschke
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , University of Muenster , Muenster , Germany
| | - C Ziegler
- b Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy , University of Wuerzburg , Wuerzburg , Germany
| | - V Arolt
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , University of Muenster , Muenster , Germany
| | - P Pauli
- c Department of Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy , University of Wuerzburg , Wuerzburg , Germany
| | - A Reif
- d Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy , University of Frankfurt , Frankfurt am Main , Germany
| | - J Deckert
- b Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy , University of Wuerzburg , Wuerzburg , Germany
| | - P Zwanzger
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , University of Muenster , Muenster , Germany .,e kbo-Inn-Salzach-Hospital , Wasserburg am Inn , Germany , and.,f Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , Ludwig-Maximilians-University , Munich , Germany
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9
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Huetter FK, Bachmann HS, Reinders A, Siffert D, Stelmach P, Knop D, Horn PA, Siffert W. Association of a Common Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphism with Self-Reported 'Empathic Concern' in a Large Population of Healthy Volunteers. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160059. [PMID: 27467763 PMCID: PMC4965009 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous research has linked genomic variations of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene with individual differences in empathy. The impact of these variations on specific cognitive and emotional aspects of empathy, however, remains to be clarified. Methods We analysed associations of a common OXTR polymorphism (rs53576) with trait empathy in a sample of 421 blood donors (231 M, 190 F; age 18–74) using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) as an established multidimensional self-report measure of empathy. Results Female sex was significantly associated with higher empathy scores in all IRI scales (p<0.001) with the exception of the cognitive perspective taking scale (p = 0.09). The overall trait empathy score was significantly associated with rs53576 (p = 0.01), with mean scores increasing from AA to GG genotypes. An analysis of the IRI subscores revealed that the polymorphism was especially associated with the emotional empathic concern scale (p = 0.02). Separate analysis of the male and female subgroup revealed a significant association of the polymorphism with female (p = 0.04), but not with male (p = 0.20) empathic concern. A comparison of effect sizes between the groups showed greater effects for women compared to men although effect size differences did not become significant in our sample. Conclusions Our findings suggest a significant association of the rs53576 OXTR gene polymorphism with trait empathy and especially with emotional aspects of empathy. This association is possibly weaker or absent in men compared to women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Korbinian Huetter
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Hagen Sjard Bachmann
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Anette Reinders
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Doris Siffert
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Patrick Stelmach
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Dietmar Knop
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Peter Alexander Horn
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
| | - Winfried Siffert
- Institut für Pharmakogenetik, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Universität Duisburg Essen, D-45122 Essen, Germany
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Arahori M, Hori Y, Saito A, Chijiiwa H, Takagi S, Ito Y, Watanabe A, Inoue-Murayama M, Fujita K. The oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) polymorphism in cats (Felis catus) is associated with “Roughness” assessed by owners. J Vet Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2015.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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11
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Lagergren K, Ek WE, Levine D, Chow WH, Bernstein L, Casson AG, Risch HA, Shaheen NJ, Bird NC, Reid BJ, Corley DA, Hardie LJ, Wu AH, Fitzgerald RC, Pharoah P, Caldas C, Romero Y, Vaughan TL, MacGregor S, Whiteman D, Westberg L, Nyren O, Lagergren J. Polymorphisms in Genes of Relevance for Oestrogen and Oxytocin Pathways and Risk of Barrett's Oesophagus and Oesophageal Adenocarcinoma: A Pooled Analysis from the BEACON Consortium. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138738. [PMID: 26406593 PMCID: PMC4583498 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The strong male predominance in oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) and Barrett's oesophagus (BO) continues to puzzle. Hormonal influence, e.g. oestrogen or oxytocin, might contribute. METHODS This genetic-epidemiological study pooled 14 studies from three continents, Australia, Europe, and North America. Polymorphisms in 3 key genes coding for the oestrogen pathway (receptor alpha (ESR1), receptor beta (ESR2), and aromatase (CYP19A1)), and 3 key genes of the oxytocin pathway (the oxytocin receptor (OXTR), oxytocin protein (OXT), and cyclic ADP ribose hydrolase glycoprotein (CD38)), were analysed using a gene-based approach, versatile gene-based test association study (VEGAS). RESULTS Among 1508 OAC patients, 2383 BO patients, and 2170 controls, genetic variants within ESR1 were associated with BO in males (p = 0.0058) and an increased risk of OAC and BO combined in males (p = 0.0023). Genetic variants within OXTR were associated with an increased risk of BO in both sexes combined (p = 0.0035) and in males (p = 0.0012). We followed up these suggestive findings in a further smaller data set, but found no replication. There were no significant associations between the other 4 genes studied and risk of OAC, BO, separately on in combination, in males and females combined or in males only. CONCLUSION Genetic variants in the oestrogen receptor alpha and the oxytocin receptor may be associated with an increased risk of BO or OAC, but replication in other large samples are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Lagergren
- Upper Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of Molecular medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Weronica E. Ek
- Statistical Genetics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Levine
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Wong-Ho Chow
- Department of Epidemiology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Leslie Bernstein
- Department of Population Sciences, Beckman Research Institute and City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, California, United States of America
| | - Alan G. Casson
- Department of Surgery, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Harvey A. Risch
- Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Shaheen
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, UNC School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Nigel C. Bird
- Department of Oncology, The Medical School, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Brian J. Reid
- Division of Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Douglas A. Corley
- Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Division of Research, Oakland, California, United States of America
| | - Laura J. Hardie
- Division of Epidemiology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Anna H. Wu
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Rebecca C. Fitzgerald
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Cancer Unit, Hutchison-MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Pharoah
- Department of Public Health, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Caldas
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Yvonne Romero
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Thomas L. Vaughan
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Stuart MacGregor
- Statistical Genetics, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Whiteman
- Cancer Control Group, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lars Westberg
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Olof Nyren
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jesper Lagergren
- Upper Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of Molecular medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Division of Cancer Studies, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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Monteleone AM, Scognamiglio P, Volpe U, Di Maso V, Monteleone P. Investigation of Oxytocin Secretion in Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa: Relationships to Temperament Personality Dimensions. EUROPEAN EATING DISORDERS REVIEW 2015; 24:52-6. [PMID: 26259495 DOI: 10.1002/erv.2391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Published studies suggested an implication of oxytocin in some temperament characteristics of personality. Therefore, we measured oxytocin secretion in 23 women with anorexia nervosa (AN), 27 with bulimia nervosa (BN) and 19 healthy controls and explored the relationships between circulating oxytocin and patients' personality traits. Plasma oxytocin levels were significantly reduced in AN women but not in BN ones. In healthy women, the attachment subscale scores of the reward dependence temperament and the harm avoidance (HA) scores explained 82% of the variability in circulating oxytocin. In BN patients, plasma oxytocin resulted to be negatively correlated with HA, whereas no significant correlations emerged in AN patients. These findings confirm a dysregulation of oxytocin production in AN but not in BN and show, for the first time, a disruption of the associations between hormone levels and patients' temperament traits, which may have a role in certain deranged behaviours of eating disorder patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Umberto Volpe
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, Naples, Italy
| | - Virginia Di Maso
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, Naples, Italy
| | - Palmiero Monteleone
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Naples SUN, Naples, Italy.,Neurosciences Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
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13
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De Dreu CKW, Baas M, Boot NC. Oxytocin enables novelty seeking and creative performance through upregulated approach: evidence and avenues for future research. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2015; 6:409-17. [PMID: 26267407 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Oxytocin is an evolutionary ancient hypothalamic neuropeptide well known for its role in reproduction, social bonding, and group affiliation. Recent work has linked oxytocin in humans to creative cognition--the ability to produce insights, ideas, and problem solutions that are original and potentially useful. Here we review this literature, focusing on the relationship between (1) single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene; endogenous oxytocin from blood plasma, and intranasal administration of oxytocin (vs placebo), and (2) creativity-related traits (e.g., novelty seeking, extraversion, and openness to experience), and behaviors (e.g., exploration, divergent thinking, original ideation, and problem solving). Findings are interpreted in the context of the dual pathway to creativity model and except for OXTR: (1) reveal a weak to moderate but consistent association between oxytocin and creativity, which emerges because (2) oxytocin enables the cognitive flexibility pathway more than persistent information processing. Findings can be best understood in terms of oxytocin's putative effects on dopaminergic activity and concomitant approach tendency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten K W De Dreu
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Center for Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making (CREED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Matthijs Baas
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nathalie C Boot
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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14
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Haram M, Tesli M, Dieset I, Steen NE, Røssberg JI, Djurovic S, Andreassen OA, Melle I. An attempt to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms contributing to possible relationships between personality traits and oxytocin-related genes. Neuropsychobiology 2015; 69:25-30. [PMID: 24458227 DOI: 10.1159/000356965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin play a central role in social behavior. Trials with intranasal oxytocin have been conducted and many indicate that the hormone facilitates affiliative behavior and trust. Intranasal oxytocin administration is suggested as a treatment option for psychiatric illnesses with altered sociability as a core symptom and the effects may be due to differences in variants of oxytocin- and vasopressin-related genes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the endogenous oxytocin system by exploring the relationship between variants in the oxytocin gene factors and personality traits closely related to trust, anxiety and social behavior. METHODS 72 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the genes coding for oxytocin (OXT), vasopressin (AVP), the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) and CD38 (CD38), including polymorphisms reported earlier to be related to social phenotypes and novel SNPs, were investigated in 196 healthy subjects. Association analysis between these variants and 3 personality traits (agreeableness, neuroticism and extraversion) measured by the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Five-Factor Inventory was performed. RESULTS We found 7 nominally significant associations for personality traits: agreeableness [rs857240 (AVP, p = 0.0075), rs2270463 (OXTR, p = 0.047)], neuroticism [rs3756242 (CD38, p = 0.024), rs13104011 (CD38, p = 0.024), rs6816486 (CD38, p = 0.024), rs7655635 (CD38, p = 0.034)] and extraversion [rs237878 (OXTR, p = 0.019)]. None of these associations remained significant after the Bonferroni correction (p threshold = 2.31 × 10(-4)). CONCLUSION Our results do not contradict the hypothesis of associations between personality traits and oxytocin-related gene variants; however, there are no statistically significant associations after correcting for multiple testing, warranting replication in larger samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit Haram
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål, Oslo, Norway
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15
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Preckel K, Scheele D, Kendrick KM, Maier W, Hurlemann R. Oxytocin facilitates social approach behavior in women. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:191. [PMID: 24904342 PMCID: PMC4034412 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In challenging environments including both numerous threats and scarce resources, the survival of an organism depends on its ability to quickly escape from dangers and to seize opportunities to gain rewards. The phylogenetically ancient neurohormonal oxytocin (OXT) system has been shown to influence both approach and avoidance (AA) behavior in men, but evidence for comparable effects in women is still lacking. We thus conducted a series of pharmacological behavioral experiments in a randomized double-blind study involving 76 healthy heterosexual women treated with either OXT (24 IU) or placebo intranasally. In Experiment 1, we tested how OXT influenced the social distance subjects maintained between themselves and either a female or male experimenter. In Experiment 2, we applied a reaction time based AA task. In Experiment 3 we investigated effects on peri-personal space by measuring the lateral attentional bias in a line bisection task. We found that OXT specifically decreased the distance maintained between subjects and the male but not the female experimenter and also accelerated approach toward pleasant social stimuli in the AA task. However, OXT did not influence the size of peri-personal space, suggesting that it does not alter perception of personal space per se, but rather that a social element is necessary for OXT's effects on AA behavior to become evident. Taken together, our results point to an evolutionarily adaptive mechanism by which OXT in women selectively promotes approach behavior in positive social contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Preckel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany ; Department of Medical Psychology, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany
| | - Dirk Scheele
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany ; Department of Medical Psychology, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany
| | - Keith M Kendrick
- Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu, China
| | - Wolfgang Maier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany ; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Bonn, Germany
| | - René Hurlemann
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany ; Department of Medical Psychology, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany
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16
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Levran O, Randesi M, Li Y, Rotrosen J, Ott J, Adelson M, Kreek MJ. Drug addiction and stress-response genetic variability: association study in African Americans. Ann Hum Genet 2014; 78:290-8. [PMID: 24766650 DOI: 10.1111/ahg.12064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Stress is a significant risk factor in the development of drug addictions and in addiction relapse susceptibility. This hypothesis-driven study was designed to determine if specific SNPs in genes related to stress response are associated with heroin and/or cocaine addiction in African Americans. The analysis included 27 genes (124 SNPs) and was performed independently for each addiction. The sample consisted of former heroin addicts in methadone maintenance treatment (n = 314), cocaine addicts (n = 281), and controls (n = 208). Fourteen SNPs showed nominally significant association with heroin addiction (p < 0.05), including the African-specific, missense SNP rs5376 (Asn334Ser) in the galanin receptor type 1 gene (GALR1) and the functional FKBP5 intronic SNP rs1360780. Thirteen SNPs showed association with cocaine addiction, including the synonymous SNPs rs237902, in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), and rs5374 in GALR1. No signal remained significant after correction for multiple testing. Four additional SNPs (GALR1 rs2717162, AVP rs2282018, CRHBP rs1875999, and NR3C2 rs1040288) were associated with both addictions and may indicate common liability. The study provides preliminary evidence for novel association of variants in several stress-related genes with heroin and/or cocaine addictions and may enhance the understanding of the interaction between stress and addictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Levran
- The Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
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MacDonald K, Feifel D. Oxytocin's role in anxiety: a critical appraisal. Brain Res 2014; 1580:22-56. [PMID: 24468203 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A growing literature suggests that the oxytocin (OT) system may play a role in human anxiety states, anxiety-related traits, and moreover, that this system may be a target for the development of novel anxiolytic treatments. However, studies of OT's acute and chronic effects on various aspects of anxiety have produced mixed results. In this forward-looking review, we discuss the myriad phenomena to which the term "anxiety" is applied in the OT literature and the problem this presents developing a coherent picture of OT's role in anxiety. We then survey several different fields of research that support the role of the OT system in human anxiety, including evolutionary perspectives, translational and neuroimaging research, genetic studies, and clinical trials of intranasal OT. As an outgrowth of this data, we propose a "bowtie" model of OT's role at the interface of social attachment and anxiety. We next direct attention to understudied brain regions and neural circuits which may be important to study in OT experiments in humans anxiety disorders. Finally, we conclude by proposing questions and priorities for studying both the clinical potential of OT in anxiety, as well as mechanisms that may underlie this potential. Crucially, these priorities include targeted proof-of-concept clinical trials of IN OT in certain anxiety disorders, including investigations of individual moderators of OT's anxiolytic effects (i.e. sex, genetic factors, and early experience). This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Oxytocin and Social Behav.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai MacDonald
- University of San Diego, Department of Psychiatry, 140 Arbor Drive, CA 92103, USA.
| | - David Feifel
- University of San Diego, Department of Psychiatry, 140 Arbor Drive, CA 92103, USA
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MacDonald K, Berlow R, Thomas ML. Attachment, affective temperament, and personality disorders: a study of their relationships in psychiatric outpatients. J Affect Disord 2013; 151:932-41. [PMID: 24054918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2012] [Revised: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As the result of extensive translational and cross-disciplinary research, attachment theory is now a construct with significant neuropsychiatric traction. The correlation of attachment with other influential conceptual models (i.e. temperament and personality) is therefore of interest. Consequently, we explored how two attachment dimensions (attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) correlated with measures of temperament and personality in 357 psychiatric outpatients. METHODS We performed a retrospective review of four questionnaires (the Experiences in Close Relationship scale (ECR-R), Temperament and Character inventory (TCI), Temperament Evaluation of the Memphis, Pisa, Paris and San Diego questionnaire (TEMPS-A), and Personality Self-Portrait Questionnaire (PSQ)). Frequency measures and correlations were examined, as was the predictive value of attachment security for a personality disorder (PD). RESULTS Significant, robust correlations were found between attachment anxiety and (1) several negative affective temperaments (dysthymic and cyclothymic); (2) several indices of personality pathology (low self-directedness (TCI), DSM-IV paranoid, borderline, histrionic, avoidant and dependent personality traits). Attachment avoidance had fewer large correlations. In an exploratory model, the negative predictive value of attachment security for a PD was 86%. LIMITATIONS Subjects were a relatively homogeneous subset of ambulatory psychiatric outpatients. PD diagnoses were via self-report. CONCLUSIONS Clinically, these findings highlight the significant overlap between attachment, affective temperament, and personality and support the value of attachment as a screen for PDs. More broadly, given our growing understanding of the neurobiology of attachment (i.e. links with the oxytocin system), these results raise interesting questions about underlying biological systems and psychiatric treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai MacDonald
- University of California Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry, USA.
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Macdonald K, Feifel D. Helping oxytocin deliver: considerations in the development of oxytocin-based therapeutics for brain disorders. Front Neurosci 2013; 7:35. [PMID: 23508240 PMCID: PMC3597931 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Concerns regarding a drought in psychopharmacology have risen from many quarters. From one perspective, the wellspring of bedrock medications for anxiety disorders, depression, and schizophrenia was serendipitously discovered over 30 year ago, the swell of pharmaceutical investment in drug discovery has receded, and the pipeline's flow of medications with unique mechanisms of action (i.e., glutamatergic agents, CRF antagonists) has slowed to a trickle. Might oxytocin (OT)-based therapeutics be an oasis? Though a large basic science literature and a slowly increasing number of studies in human diseases support this hope, the bulk of extant OT studies in humans are single-dose studies on normals, and do not directly relate to improvements in human brain-based diseases. Instead, these studies have left us with a field pregnant with therapeutic possibilities, but barren of definitive treatments. In this clinically oriented review, we discuss the extant OT literature with an eye toward helping OT deliver on its promise as a therapeutic agent. To this end, we identify 10 key questions that we believe future OT research should address. From this overview, several conclusions are clear: (1) the OT system represents an extremely promising target for novel CNS drug development; (2) there is a pressing need for rigorous, randomized controlled clinical trials targeting actual patients; and (3) in order to inform the design and execution of these vital trials, we need further translational studies addressing the questions posed in this review. Looking forward, we extend a cautious hope that the next decade of OT research will birth OT-targeted treatments that can truly deliver on this system's therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Macdonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego San Diego, CA, USA
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Macdonald KS. Sex, receptors, and attachment: a review of individual factors influencing response to oxytocin. Front Neurosci 2013; 6:194. [PMID: 23335876 PMCID: PMC3541513 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As discussed in the larger review in this special issue (MacDonald and Feifel), intranasal oxytocin (OT) is demonstrating a growing potential as a therapeutic agent in psychiatry. Importantly, research suggests that a variety of individual factors may influence a person's response to OT. In this mini-review, I provide a review of three: (1) sex and hormonal status; (2) genetic variation in aspects of the OT system (i.e., OT receptors); and (3) attachment history. Each of these factors will be important to monitor as we strive to develop a richer understanding of OT's role in human development, brain-based disease, and the potential for individualized, OT-targeted treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai S Macdonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California Medical Center San Diego, CA, USA
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