Her2-Functionalized Gold-Nanoshelled Magnetic Hybrid Nanoparticles: a Theranostic Agent for Dual-Modal Imaging and Photothermal Therapy of Breast Cancer

Surface Engineering of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Diagnostics and Drug Delivery

Data published in 2020 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization show that breast cancer (BC) has become the most common cancer globally, affecting more than 2 million women each year. The complex tumor microenvironment, drug resistance, metastasis, and poor prognosis constitute the primary challenges in the current diagnosis and treatment of BC. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONPs) have emerged as a promising nanoplatform for diagnostic tumor imaging as well as therapeutic drug-targeted delivery due to their unique physicochemical properties. The extensive surface engineering has given rise to multifunctionalized MIONPs. In this review, the latest advancements in surface modification strategies of MIONPs over the past five years are summarized and categorized as constrast agents and drug delivery platforms. Additionally, the remaining challenges and future prospects of MIONPs-based targeted delivery are discussed.

Inorganic nanoparticles for photothermal treatment of cancer

In recent years, inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted increasing attention as potential theranostic agents in the field of oncology. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a minimally invasive technique that uses nanoparticles to produce heat from light to kill cancer cells. PTT requires two essential elements: a photothermal agent (PTA) and near-infrared (NIR) radiation. The role of PTAs is to absorb NIR, which subsequently triggers hyperthermia within cancer cells. By raising the temperature in the tumor microenvironment (TME), PTT causes damage to the cancer cells. Nanoparticles (NPs) are instrumental in PTT given that they facilitate the passive and active targeting of the PTA to the TME, making them crucial for the effectiveness of the treatment. In addition, specific targeting can be achieved through their enhanced permeation and retention effect. Thus, owing to their significant advantages, such as altering the morphology and surface characteristics of nanocarriers comprised of PTA, NPs have been exploited to facilitate tumor regression significantly. This review highlights the properties of PTAs, the mechanism of PTT, and the results obtained from the improved curative efficacy of PTT by utilizing NPs platforms.

Exploring the current landscape of chitosan-based hybrid nanoplatforms as cancer theragnostic

In the last decade, investigators have put significant efforts to develop several diagnostic and therapeutic strategies against cancer. Many novel nanoplatforms, including lipidic, metallic, and inorganic nanocarriers, have shown massive potential at preclinical and clinical stages for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Each of these nano-systems is distinct with its own benefits and limitations. The need to overcome the limitations of single-component nano-systems, improve their morphological and biological features, and achieve multiple functionalities has resulted in the emergence of hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs). These HNPs integrate multicomponent nano-systems with diagnostic and therapeutic functions into a single nano-system serving as promising nanotools for cancer theragnostic applications. Chitosan (CS) being a mucoadhesive, biodegradable, and biocompatible biopolymer, has emerged as an essential element for the development of HNPs offering several advantages over conventional nanoparticles including pH-dependent drug delivery, sustained drug release, and enhanced nanoparticle stability. In addition, the free protonable amino groups in the CS backbone offer flexibility to its structure, making it easy for the modification and functionalization of CS, resulting in better drug targetability and cell uptake. This review discusses in detail the existing different oncology-directed CS-based HNPs including their morphological characteristics, in-vitro/in-vivo outcomes, toxicity concerns, hurdles in clinical translation, and future prospects.

Gold nanoshells with magnetic cores and a urea-based receptor for SERS sensing of fluoride anions: experimental and computational study

The study demonstrates that a combination of plasmonic nanostructures and artificial receptors can be applied for sensing small molecular species. Gold nanoshells containing magnetic cores are used as the SERS-active substrates, which opens the way for the development of multimodal contrast agents with applicability extended to sensing or for the separation of analytes by magnetic solid-phase extraction. Disubstituted ureas forming hydrogen-bonded complexes with certain anions can be employed as molecular sensors. In this case study, gold nanoshells with silica-coated Mn-Zn ferrite cores were prepared by a multistep procedure. The nanoshells were co-functionalized with an N-(4-mercaptophenyl)-N'-(4-nitrophenyl)urea sensor synthesized directly on the gold surface, and with 4-nitrothiophenol, which is adopted as an internal standard. SERS measurements were carried out with acetonitrile solutions of tetrabutylammonium fluoride (Bu4NF) over a concentration range of 10-10-10-1 mol L-1. The spectral response of the sensor is dependent on the fluoride concentration in the range of 10-5-10-1 mol L-1. To investigate further the SERS mechanism, a model sensor, N-(4-bromophenyl)-N'-(4-nitrophenyl)urea, was synthesized and used in Raman spectroscopy with solutions of Bu4NF, up to a molar ratio of 1 : 20. The spectra and the interactions between the sensors and fluoride anions were also studied by extensive DFT computations.

Palladium Nanocapsules for Photothermal Therapy in the Near-Infrared II Biological Window

Recent developments in nanomaterials with programmable optical responses and their capacity to modulate the photothermal effect induced by an extrinsic source of light have elevated plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) to the status of a favored treatment for a variety of malignancies. However, the low penetration depth of near-infrared-I (NIR-I) lights and the need to expose the human body to a high laser power density in PPTT have restricted its clinical translation for cancer therapy. Most nanostructures reported to date exhibit limited performance due to (i) activity only in the NIR-I region, (ii) the use of intense laser, (iii) need of large concentration of nanomaterials, or (iv) prolonged exposure times to achieve the optimal hyperthermia state for cancer phototherapy. To overcome these shortcomings in plasmonic nanomaterials, we report a bimetallic palladium nanocapsule (Pd Ncap)─with a solid gold bead as its core and a thin, perforated palladium shell─with extinction both in the NIR-I as well as the NIR-II region for PPTT applications toward cancer therapy. The Pd Ncap demonstrated exceptional photothermal stability with a photothermal conversion efficiency of ∼49% at the NIR-II (1064 nm) wavelength region at a very low laser power density of 0.5 W/cm2. The nanocapsules were further surface-functionalized with Herceptin (Pd Ncap-Her) to target the breast cancer cell line SK-BR-3 and exploited for in vitro PPTT applications using NIR-II light. Pd Ncap-Her caused more than 98% cell death at a concentration of just 50 μg/mL and a laser power density of 0.5 W/cm2 with an output power of only 100 mW. Flow cytometric and microscopic analyses revealed that Pd Ncap-Her-induced apoptosis in the treated cancer cells during PPTT. Additionally, Pd Ncaps were found to have reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging ability, which can potentially reduce the damage to cells or tissues from ROS produced during PPTT. Also, Pd Ncap demonstrated excellent in vivo biocompatibility and was highly efficient in photothermally ablating tumors in mice. With a high photothermal conversion and killing efficiency at very low nanoparticle concentrations and laser power densities, the current nanostructure can operate as an effective phototherapeutic agent for the treatment of different cancers with ROS-protecting ability.

Multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles in diagnosis and therapy of breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most prevalent non-cutaneous malignancy in women, with greater than a million new cases every year. In the last decennium, numerous diagnostic and treatment approaches have been enormously studied for Breast cancer. Among the different approaches, nanotechnology has appeared as a promising approach in preclinical and clinical studies for early diagnosis of primary tumors and metastases and eradicating tumor cells. Each of these nanocarriers has its particular advantages and drawbacks. Combining two or more than two constituents in a single nanocarrier system leads to the generation of novel multifunctional Hybrid Nanocarriers with improved structural and biological properties. These novel Hybrid Nanocarriers have the capability to overcome the drawbacks of individual constituents while having the advantages of those components. Various hybrid nanocarriers such as lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles, inorganic hybrid nanoparticles, metal-organic hybrid nanoparticles, and hybrid carbon nanocarriers are utilized for the diagnosis and treatment of various cancers. Certainly, Hybrid Nanocarriers have the capability to encapsulate multiple cargos, targeting agents, enhancement in encapsulation, stability, circulation time, and structural disintegration compared to non-hybrid nanocarriers. Many studies have been conducted to investigate the utilization of Hybrid nanocarriers in breast cancer for imaging platforms, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, chemotherapy, gene therapy, and combinational therapy. In this review, we mainly discussed in detailed about of preparation techniques and toxicological considerations of hybrid nanoparticles. This review also discussed the role of hybrid nanocarriers as a diagnostic and therapeutic agent for the treatment of breast cancer along with alternative treatment approaches apart from chemotherapy including photothermal and photodynamic therapy, gene therapy, and combinational therapy.

Polydopamine/IR820 nanoparticles as topical phototheranostics for inhibiting psoriasiform lesions through dual photothermal and photodynamic treatments

Dual photothermal and photodynamic therapy (PTT and PDT) is an attractive approach that generates a synergistic effect for inhibiting keratinocyte hyperproliferation in the treatment of psoriasis. Here, we developed phototheranostic nanocarriers capable of producing hyperthermia and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in response to near-infrared (NIR) illumination. To this end, IR820 with photothermal and photodynamic features was embedded in nano-sized polydopamine (PDA) acting as a PTT agent. A comprehensive characterization of the PDA/IR820 nanosystem was performed according to its morphology, size, zeta potential, UV absorbance, and heat generation. Its therapeutic efficacy was assessed by a keratinocyte-based study and using an imiquimod (IMQ)-stimulated psoriasiform murine model. PDA/IR820 nanoparticles were facilely internalized into keratinocytes and mainly resided in lysosomes. Upon irradiation with NIR light, ROS were generated inside the keratinocytes to cause a photodynamic effect. The live/dead cell assay and cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that PDA and IR820 acted as effective photoabsorbers to induce keratinocyte death. The highest cytotoxic effect was detected in the group of NIR-irradiated PDA/IR820 nanoparticles, which killed 52% of keratinocytes. The nanosystem acted through the caspase and poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) pathways to induce keratinocyte apoptosis. In vitro and in vivo skin permeation indicated the selective accumulation of the topically applied PDA/IR820 nanoparticles within psoriasiform skin, suggesting their skin-targeting capability. The combination of PDA/IR820 nanoparticles and NIR irradiation increased the skin temperature by 11.7 °C. PTT/PDT eliminated psoriasiform plaques in mice by decreasing hyperplasia, inhibiting cytokine overexpression, and recovering the barrier function. The epidermal thickness of the IMQ-treated skin was reduced from 134 to 34 μm by the nanocarriers plus NIR. The IR820 nanoparticles were largely deposited on the inflamed areas of psoriasiform lesions for monitoring the severity of inflammation. The image-guided phototheranostic nanoparticles showed their potential for applications in psoriasis management via noninvasive topical administration.

Enhanced US/CT/MR imaging of integrin αvβ3 for liver fibrosis staging in rat

Liver fibrosis is a global health challenge with high morbidity and mortality rates, and diagnostic sensitivity of liver fibrosis tests can be increased using multimodal molecular agents. We designed cyclic arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (cRGD)-modified nanoparticles (NPs) using ultrasound (US)/computed tomography (CT)/magnetic resonance (MR) triple-modality imaging to evaluate liver fibrosis stages. In vitro and in vivo studies were conducted using primary hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and a rat model of liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Our results showed cRGD-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-Fe3O4-perfluorocarbon bromide (cRGD-PLGA-Fe3O4-PFOB) NPs were preferentially internalised by activated HSCs (aHSCs). The main cell types expressing integrin αvβ3 during liver fibrogenesis were the aHSCs. The protein levels of αv and β3 expressed on aHSCs increased with the progression of liver fibrosis. After intravenous injection of cRGD-PLGA-Fe3O4-PFOB NPs, the echo intensity (EI) values, CT values, and T2 values of liver parenchyma correlated well with liver fibrosis severity. cRGD-PLGA-Fe3O4-PFOB NPs as multifunction contrast agents showed great potential to reflect the degree of HSC activation and distinguish among different liver fibrotic stages. The ligand-directed and integrin αvβ3-mediated accumulation provides active and passive targeting capabilities, permitting the targeted multimodal imaging of cRGD-PLGA-Fe3O4-PFOB NPs, which delivers accurate non-invasive diagnosis and real-time monitoring of liver fibrosis development.

Nanoparticles Design for Theranostic Approach in Cancer Disease

Presently, there are no conclusive treatments for many types of cancer, mainly due to the advanced phase of the disease at the time of diagnosis and to the side effects of existing therapies. Present diagnostic and therapeutic procedures need to be improved to supply early detection abilities and perform a more specific therapy with reduced systemic toxicity. In this review, improvements in nanotechnology allowing the design of multifunctional nanoparticles for cancer detection, therapy, and monitoring are reported. Nanoparticles, thanks to the nanomaterials they are made of, can be used as contrast agents for various diagnostic techniques such as MRI, optical imaging, and photoacoustic imaging. Furthermore, when used as drug carriers, they can accumulate in tumor tissues through the passive or/and active targeting, protect encapsulated drugs from degradation, raise tumor exposure to chemotherapeutic agents improving treatment effects. In addition, nanocarriers can simultaneously deliver more than one therapeutic agent enhancing the effectiveness of therapy and can co-deliver imaging and therapy agents to provide integration of diagnostics, therapy, and follow-up. Furthermore, the use of nanocarriers allows to use different therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy and hyperthermia to exploit synergistic effects. Theranostic approach to diagnose and treat cancer show a great potential to improve human health, however, despite technological advances in this field, the transfer into clinical practice is still a long way off.

Naturally Equipped Urinary Exosomes Coated Poly (2−ethyl−2−oxazoline)−Poly (D, L−lactide) Nanocarriers for the Pre−Clinical Translation of Breast Cancer

Recently, biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor−targeted therapy have attracted intensifying interest. Although exosomes are an excellent biomimetic material, numerous challenges are still hindering its clinical applications, such as low yield, insufficient targeting efficiency, and high cost. In this work, urinary exosomes (UEs) with high expression of CD9 and CD47 were extracted from breast cancer patients by a non−invasive method. Here, a nanotechnology approach is reported for tumor homologous targeting via CD9 and phagocytosis escape via CD47 through UE−coated poly (2−ethyl−2−oxazoline)−poly (D, L−lactide) (PEOz−PLA) nanoparticles (UEPP NPs). The cytotoxic agent doxorubicin (DOX)−loaded UEPP (UEPP−D) NPs with an initial particle size of 61.5 nm showed a burst release under acidic condition mimicking the tumor microenvironment. In vitro experiments revealed that UEPP−D NPs exhibited significantly improved cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis in MCF−7 cell lines as compared to DOX−loaded PEOz−PLA nanoparticles (PP−D NPs) and free DOX. More importantly, anti−phagocytosis and pharmacokinetic studies confirmed that UEPP−D NPs had superior immune escape ability and significantly prolonged the drug’s bloodstream circulation in vivo. Finally, UEPP−D NPs showed a markedly higher antitumor efficacy and lower side−toxicity in MCF−7 tumor bearing nude mice model. Thus, this versatile nano−system with immune escape, homologous targeting, and rapid response release characteristics could be a promising tool for breast cancer treatment.

Nano-Based Theranostic Platforms for Breast Cancer: A Review of Latest Advancements

Breast cancer (BC) is a highly metastatic multifactorial disease with various histological and molecular subtypes. Due to recent advancements, the mortality rate in BC has improved over the past five decades. Detection and treatment of many cancers are now possible due to the application of nanomedicine in clinical practice. Nanomedicine products such as Doxil^® and Abraxane^® have already been extensively used for BC adjuvant therapy with favorable clinical outcomes. However, these products were designed initially for generic anticancer purposes and not specifically for BC treatment. With a better understanding of the molecular biology of BC, several novel and promising nanotherapeutic strategies and devices have been developed in recent years. In this context, multi-functionalized nanostructures are becoming potential carriers for enhanced chemotherapy in BC patients. To design these nanostructures, a wide range of materials, such as proteins, lipids, polymers, and hybrid materials, can be used and tailored for specific purposes against BC. Selective targeting of BC cells results in the activation of programmed cell death in BC cells and can be considered a promising strategy for managing triple-negative BC. Currently, conventional BC screening methods such as mammography, digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), ultrasonography, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are either costly or expose the user to hazardous radiation that could harm them. Therefore, there is a need for such analytical techniques for detecting BC that are highly selective and sensitive, have a very low detection limit, are durable, biocompatible, and reproducible. In detecting BC biomarkers, nanostructures are used alone or in conjunction with numerous molecules. This review intends to highlight the recent advances in nanomedicine in BC treatment and diagnosis, emphasizing the targeting of BC cells that overexpress receptors of epidermal growth factors. Researchers may gain insight from these strategies to design and develop more tailored nanomedicine for BC to achieve further improvements in cancer specificity, antitumorigenic effects, anti-metastasis effects, and drug resistance reversal effects.

Recent advances in nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy for breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women that is associated with high mortality. Conventional treatments including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, which are not effective enough and have disadvantages such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells. Photothermal therapy (PTT) of cancer cells has been took great attention by researchers in recent years due to the use of light radiation and heat generation at the tumor site, which thermal ablation is considered a minimally invasive method for the treatment of breast cancer. Nanotechnology has opened up a new perspective in the treatment of breast cancer using PTT method. Through NIR light absorption, researchers applied various nanostructures because of their specific nature of penetrating and targeting tumor tissue, increasing the effectiveness of PTT, and combining it with other treatments. If PTT is used with common cancer treatments, it can dramatically increase the effectiveness of treatment and reduce the side effects of other methods. PTT performance can also be improved by hybridizing at least two different nanomaterials. Nanoparticles that intensely absorb light and increase the efficiency of converting light into heat can specifically kill tumors through hyperthermia of cancer cells. One of the main reasons that have increased the efficiency of nanoparticles in PTT is their permeability and durability effect and they can accumulate in tumor tissue. Targeted PTT can be provided by incorporating specific ligands to target receptors expressed on the surface of cancer cells on nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can specifically target cancer cells by maintaining the surface area and increasing penetration. In this study, we briefly introduce the performance of light therapy, application of metal nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, and hybrid nanoparticles for use in PTT of breast cancer.

Next-generation engineered nanogold for multimodal cancer therapy and imaging: a clinical perspectives

Cancer is one of the significant threats to human life. Although various latest technologies are currently available to treat cancer, it still accounts for millions of death each year worldwide. Thus, creating a need for more developed and novel technologies to combat this deadly condition. Nanoparticles-based cancer therapeutics have offered a promising approach to treat cancer effectively while minimizing adverse events. Among various nanoparticles, nanogold (AuNPs) are biocompatible and have proved their efficiency in treating cancer because they can reach tumors via enhanced permeability and retention effect. The size and shape of the AuNPs are responsible for their diverse therapeutic behavior. Thus, to modulate their therapeutic values, the AuNPs can be synthesized in various shapes, such as spheres, cages, flowers, shells, prisms, rods, clusters, etc. Also, attaching AuNPs with single or multiple targeting agents can facilitate the active targeting of AuNPs to the tumor tissue. The AuNPs have been much explored for photothermal therapy (PTT) to treat cancer. In addition to PTT, AuNPs-based nanoplatforms have been investigated for combinational multimodal therapies in the last few years, including photodynamic therapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, etc., to ablate cancer cells. Thus, the present review focuses on the recent advancements in the functionalization of AuNPs-based nanoconstructs for cancer imaging and therapy using combinatorial multimodal approaches to treat various cancers.

A triple enhanced permeable gold nanoraspberry designed for positive feedback interventional therapy

Due to the unique microenvironment, nanoparticles cannot easily penetrate deeply into tumours, which decreases their therapeutic efficacy. Thus, new strategies should be developed to solve this problem and increase the efficacy of nanomedicine. In this study, gold nanoraspberries (GNRs) were constructed using ultrasmall gold nanospheres (UGNPs) with a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2/9-sensitive peptide as a cross-linking agent. These UGNPs were then modified with trastuzumab (TRA) and mertansine derivatives (DM1) via the AuS bond. TRA targets the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (Her-2) which is overexpressed on Her-2⁺ breast cancer cells. The AuS bond in GNRs-DM1 can be replaced by the free sulfhydryl group of GSH, which could achieve GSH dependent redox responsive release of the drug. In the mouse model of Her-2⁺ breast cancer, a "positive feedback" triple enhanced penetration platform was construct to treat tumours. Firstly, near-infrared light-triggered photothermal conversion increased vascular permeability, resulting in nanoparticle penetration. Secondly, GNRs disintegrated into UGNPs in response to stimulation with MMPs. GNRs with larger particle sizes reached the tumour site through EPR effect and active targeting. Meanwhile, UGNPs with smaller particle sizes penetrated deeply into the tumour through diffusion. Thirdly, the UGNPs transformed activated cancer-associated fibroblasts to a quiescent state, which reduced intercellular pressure and promoted the penetration of the UGNPs into the interior of the tumour. In turn, an increase in the number of nanoparticles penetrating into the tumour led to a "positive feedback" loop of triple enhanced photothermal effects and further self-amplify the permeability in vivo. Interventional photothermal therapy (IPTT) was used to improve the therapeutic efficacy by reducing the laser power attenuation caused by percutaneous irradiation. The GNRs also showed excellent multimode imaging (computed tomography, photoacoustic imaging and photothermal imaging) capabilities and high anti-tumour efficacy due to efficient tumour targeting and triple enhanced deep penetration into the tumour site. Thus, these MMP-2/redox dual-responsive GNRs are promising carriers of drugs targeting human epidermal growth factor receptor 2+ breast cancer.

Nanoparticle Systems for Cancer Phototherapy: An Overview

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) are photo-mediated treatments with different mechanisms of action that can be addressed for cancer treatment. Both phototherapies are highly successful and barely or non-invasive types of treatment that have gained attention in the past few years. The death of cancer cells because of the application of these therapies is caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species, that leads to oxidative stress for the case of photodynamic therapy and the generation of heat for the case of photothermal therapies. The advancement of nanotechnology allowed significant benefit to these therapies using nanoparticles, allowing both tuning of the process and an increase of effectiveness. The encapsulation of drugs, development of the most different organic and inorganic nanoparticles as well as the possibility of surfaces' functionalization are some strategies used to combine phototherapy and nanotechnology, with the aim of an effective treatment with minimal side effects. This article presents an overview on the use of nanostructures in association with phototherapy, in the view of cancer treatment.

In vivo spectroscopic photoacoustic imaging and laser-induced nanoparticle vaporization for anti-HER2 breast cancer

This study reports on the development and application of theragnostic agents targeting the HER2 receptors in breast tumors. The agent was constructed by loading silica-coated gold nanorods (GNRs) and a perfluorohexane liquid into PLGA-PEG nanoparticles, followed by surface conjugation with antibody Herceptin. The particle uptake in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 (HER2-negative) and BT474 (HER2-positive) cell lines was tested. A proof of principle in vivo study was also performed using a xenograft mouse bilateral tumor model (16 mice, 32 tumors). Photoacoustic imaging was performed using a VevoLAZR device at 720/750/850 nm illuminations and 21 MHz central frequency. The relative concentrations of GNRs in the tumor were quantified using a linear spectral unmixing technique. The therapeutic efficacy of these nanoparticles was evaluated through optical droplet vaporization, and cell damage was confirmed using tissue immunofluorescence and histology. Our results demonstrate the potential of PLGA-GNRs as theragnostic agents for anti-HER2 breast cancer therapy.

Current Advances in Photoactive Agents for Cancer Imaging and Therapy

Photoactive agents are promising complements for both early diagnosis and targeted treatment of cancer. The dual combination of diagnostics and therapeutics is known as theranostics. Photoactive theranostic agents are activated by a specific wavelength of light and emit another wavelength, which can be detected for imaging tumors, used to generate reactive oxygen species for ablating tumors, or both. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) combines photosensitizer (PS) accumulation and site-directed light irradiation for simultaneous imaging diagnostics and spatially targeted therapy. Although utilized since the early 1900s, advances in the fields of cancer biology, materials science, and nanomedicine have expanded photoactive agents to modern medical treatments. In this review we summarize the origins of PDT and the subsequent generations of PSs and analyze seminal research contributions that have provided insight into rational PS design, such as photophysics, modes of cell death, tumor-targeting mechanisms, and light dosing regimens. We highlight optimizable parameters that, with further exploration, can expand clinical applications of photoactive agents to revolutionize cancer diagnostics and treatment.

Room temperature synthesized solid solution AuFe nanoparticles and their transformation into Au/Fe Janus nanocrystals

Solid solution AuFe nanoparticles were synthesized for the first time under ambient conditions by an adapted method previously established for the Fe₃O₄-Au core-shell morphology. These AuFe particles preserved the fcc structure of Au incorporated with paramagnetic Fe atoms. The metastable AuFe can be segregated by transformation into Janus Au/Fe particles with bcc Fe and fcc Au upon annealing. The ferromagnetic Fe was epitaxially grown on low index fcc Au planes. This preparation route delivers new perspective materials for magnetoplasmonics and biomedical applications and suggests the reconsideration of existing protocols for magnetite-gold core-shell synthesis.

Multifunctional theranostic nanoparticles for biomedical cancer treatments - A comprehensive review

Modern-day search for the novel agents (their preparation and consequent implementation) to effectively treat the cancer is mainly fuelled by the historical failure of the conventional treatment modalities. Apart from that, the complexities such as higher rate of cell mutations, variable tumor microenvironment, patient-specific disparities, and the evolving nature of cancers have made this search much stronger in the latest times. As a result of this, in about two decades, the theranostic nanoparticles (TNPs) - i.e., nanoparticles that integrate therapeutic and diagnostic characteristics - have been developed. The examples for TNPs include mesoporous silica nanoparticles, luminescence nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles. These TNPs have emerged as single and powerful cancer-treating multifunctional nanoplatforms, as they widely provide the necessary functionalities to overcome the previous/conventional limitations including lack of the site-specific delivery of anti-cancer drugs, and real-time continuous monitoring of the target cancer sites while performing therapeutic actions. This has been mainly possible due to the association of the as-developed TNPs with the already-available unique diagnostic (e.g., luminescence, photoacoustic, and magnetic resonance imaging) and therapeutic (e.g., photothermal, photodynamic, hyperthermia therapy) modalities in the biomedical field. In this review, we have discussed in detail about the recent developments on the aforementioned important TNPs without/with targeting ability (i.e., attaching them with ligands or tumor-specific antibodies) and also the strategies that are implemented to increase their tumor accumulation and to enhance their theranostic efficacies for effective biomedical cancer treatments.

Current State of Breast Cancer Diagnosis, Treatment, and Theranostics

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Early diagnosis and effective treatment of all types of cancers are crucial for a positive prognosis. Patients with small tumor sizes at the time of their diagnosis have a significantly higher survival rate and a significantly reduced probability of the cancer being fatal. Therefore, many novel technologies are being developed for early detection of primary tumors, as well as distant metastases and recurrent disease, for effective breast cancer management. Theranostics has emerged as a new paradigm for the simultaneous diagnosis, imaging, and treatment of cancers. It has the potential to provide timely and improved patient care via personalized therapy. In nanotheranostics, cell-specific targeting moieties, imaging agents, and therapeutic agents can be embedded within a single formulation for effective treatment. In this review, we will highlight the different diagnosis techniques and treatment strategies for breast cancer management and explore recent advances in breast cancer theranostics. Our main focus will be to summarize recent trends and technologies in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment as reported in recent research papers and patents and discuss future perspectives for effective breast cancer therapy.

Anti-HER2 PLGA-PEG polymer nanoparticle containing gold nanorods and paclitaxel for laser-activated breast cancer detection and therapy

Phase-transition nanoparticles have been identified as effective theragnostic, anti-cancer agents. However, non-selective delivery of these agents results in inaccurate diagnosis and insufficient treatment. In this study, we report on the development of targeted phase-transition polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) for the imaging and treatment of breast cancer cell lines over-expressing human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). These NPs contain a perfluorohexane liquid interior and gold nanorods (GNRs) stabilized by biodegradable and biocompatible copolymer PLGA-PEG. Water-insoluble therapeutic drug Paclitaxel (PAC) and fluorescent dye were encapsulated into the PLGA shell. The NP surfaces were conjugated to HER2-binding agent, Herceptin, to actively target HER2-positive cancer cells. We evaluated the potential of using these NPs as a photoacoustic contrast agent. The efficacy of cancer cell treatment by laser-induced vaporization and stimulated drug release were also investigated. The results showed that our synthesized PLGA-PEG-GNRs (mean diameter 285 ± 29 nm) actively targeted HER2 positive cells with high efficacy. The laser-induced vaporization caused more damage to the targeted cells versus PAC-only and negative controls. This agent may provide better diagnostic imaging and therapeutic potential than current methods for treating HER2-positive breast cancer.

Recent advances in HER2-targeted delivery for cancer therapy

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), a tyrosine kinase receptor with a molecular mass of 185kDa, is overexpressed in several cancers, such as breast, gastric, ovary, prostate, and lung. HER2 is a promising target in cancer therapy because of its crucial role in cell migration, proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, and metastasis through various intracellular signaling cascades. This receptor is an ideal target for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents because of its accessibility to the extracellular domain. In this review, we highlight different HER2-targeting strategies and various approaches for HER2-targeted delivery systems to improve outcomes for cancer therapy.

Her2-Targeted Multifunctional Nano-Theranostic Platform Mediates Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling and Immune Activation for Breast Cancer Treatment

Purpose

The treatment of breast cancer is often ineffective due to the protection of the tumor microenvironment and the low immunogenicity of tumor cells, leading to a poor therapeutic effect. In this study, we designed a nano-theranostic platform for these obstacles: a photothermal effect mediated by a gold shell could remodel the tumor microenvironment by decreasing cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and promote the release of doxorubicin (DOX) from nanoparticles. In addition, it could realize photoacoustic (PA)/MRI dual-model imaging for diagnose breast cancer and targeted identification of Her2-positive breast cancer.

Methods

Her2-DOX-superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIOs)@Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) acid (PLGA)@Au nanoparticles (Her2-DSG NPs) were prepared based on a single emulsion oil-in-water (O/W) solvent evaporation method, gold seed growing method, and carbon diimide method. The size distribution, morphology, PA/MRI imaging, drug loading capacity, and drug release were investigated. Cytotoxicity, antitumor effect, cellular uptake, immunogenic cell death (ICD) effect, and targeted performance on human Her2-positive BT474 cell line were investigated in vitro. BT474/Adr cells were constructed and the antitumor effect of NPs on it was evaluated in vitro. Moreover, chemical-photothermal therapy effect, PA/MRI dual-model imaging, ICD effect induced by NPs, and tumor microenvironment remodeling in human BT474 breast cancer nude mice model were also investigated.

Results

Nanoparticles were spherical, uniform in size and covered with a gold shell. NPs had a photothermal effect, and can realize photothermal-controlled drug release in vitro. Chemical-photothermal therapy had a good antitumor effect on BT474/Adr cells and on BT474 cells in vitro. The targeting evaluation in vitro showed that Her2-DSG NPs could actively target and identify Her2-positive tumor cells. The PA/MRI imaging was successfully validated in vitro/vivo. Similarly, NPs could enhance the ICD effect in vitro/vivo, which could activate an immune response. Immunofluorescence results also proved that photothermal effect could decrease CAFs to remodel the tumor microenvironment and enhance the accessibility of NPs to tumor cells. According to the toxicity results, targeted drug delivery combined with photothermal-responsive drug release proved that NPs had good biosafety in vivo. Chemical-photothermal therapy of Her2-targeted NPs has a good antitumor effect in the BT474 nude mice model.

Conclusion

Our study showed that chemical-photothermal therapy combined with tumor microenvironment remodeling and immune activation based on the Her2-DSG NPs we developed are very promising for Her2-positive breast cancer.

Functionalized nanoparticles with targeted antibody to enhance imaging of breast cancer in vivo

BACKGROUND

Targeted contrast nanoparticles for breast tumor imaging facilitates early detection and improves treatment efficacy of breast cancer. This manuscript reports the development of an epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) specific, bi-modal, dendrimer conjugate to enhance computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of HER-2-positive breast cancer. This material employs generation 5 poly(amidoamine) dendrimers, encapsulated gold nanoparticles, chelated gadolinium, and anti-human HER-2 antibody to produce the nanoparticle contrast agent.

RESULTS

Testing in two mouse tumor models confirms this contrast agent's ability to image HER-2 positive tumors. Intravenous injection of this nanoparticle in mice bearing HER-2 positive mammary tumors significantly enhances MRI signal intensity by ~ 20% and improves CT resolution and contrast by two-fold. Results by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy validate the specific targeting of the conjugate and its internalization in human HER-2 positive cells.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that this nanoparticle conjugate can efficiently target and image HER-2 positive tumors in vivo and provide a basis for the development of this diagnostic tool for early detection, metastatic assessment and therapeutic monitoring of HER-2 positive cancers.

A New Pharmacokinetic Model Describing the Biodistribution of Intravenously and Intratumorally Administered Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) in a GL261 Xenograft Glioblastoma Model

Background

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have displayed multifunctional applications in cancer theranostics following systemic delivery. In an effort to increase the therapeutic potential of local therapies (including focal hyperthermia), nanoparticles can also be administered intratumorally. Therefore, the development of a reliable pharmacokinetic model for the prediction of nanoparticle distribution for both clinically relevant routes of delivery is of high importance.

Materials and Methods

The biodistribution of SPIONs (of two different sizes – 130 nm and 60 nm) radiolabeled with zirconium-89 or technetium-99m following intratumoral or intravenous injection was investigated in C57/Bl6 mice bearing subcutaneous GL261 glioblastomas. Based on PET/CT biodistribution data, a novel pharmacokinetic model was established for a better understanding of the pharmacokinetics of the SPIONs after both administration routes.

Results

The PET image analysis of the nanoparticles (confirmed by histology) demonstrated the presence of radiolabeled nanoparticles within the glioma site (with low amounts in the liver and spleen) at all investigated time points following intratumoral injection. The mathematical model confirmed the dynamic nanoparticle redistribution in the organism over a period of 72 h with an equilibrium reached after 100 h. Intravenous injection of nanoparticles demonstrated a different distribution pattern with a rapid particle retention in all organs (particularly in liver and spleen) and a subsequent slow release rate.

Conclusion

The mathematical model demonstrated good agreement with experimental data derived from tumor mouse models suggesting the value of this tool to predict the real-time pharmacokinetic features of SPIONs in vivo. In the future, it is planned to adapt our model to other nanoparticle formulations to more precisely describe their biodistribution in in vivo model systems.

Targeted gold nanoshelled hybrid nanocapsules encapsulating doxorubicin for bimodal imaging and near-infrared triggered synergistic therapy of Her2-positve breast cancer

A multifunctional targeted nanoplatform combining photothermal therapy and chemotherapy has emerged as a promising strategy for comprehensive therapies of breast cancer. In this study, we constructed human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (Her2)-targeted gold nanoshelled poly(lactic- co-glycolic acid) hybrid nanocapsules encapsulating perfluorooctyl bromide, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, and doxorubicin (Her2-GPDH nanocapsules) as theranostic agent for bimodal ultrasound/magnetic resonance imaging and synergistic photothermal-chemotherapy of Her2-postive breast cancer cells. Her2–GPDH nanocomposites possessed well-defined spherical morphology, and the average diameter was about 296 nm with good dispersion. Targeting assays demonstrated that Her2–GPDH nanocapsules exhibited higher targeting binding to Her2-positive SKBR3 cells than Her2-negative MDA-MB-231cells. The encapsulation efficiency and the loading content of doxorubicin in Her2–GPDH nanocapsules were 39 ± 1.45% and 3.8 ± 0.52%, respectively, and the agent exhibited pH-responsive and near-infrared light-triggered stepwise release behavior of doxorubicin. In vitro, the agent had potential to serve as feasible candidate for ultrasound imaging and T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging with a relatively high relaxivity. Cell experiments confirmed that the agent had significant photothermal cytotoxicity on SKBR3 cells, and the combined photothermal–chemotherapy could significantly enhance the anti-tumor effect. In summary, the present Her2–GPDH nanocapsules, a novel multifunctional nanoplatform, will offer a new way for early bimodal molecular-level diagnosis and synergistic treatment of Her2-positve breast cancer.

A Systematic Safety Evaluation of Nanoporous Mannitol Material as a Dry-Powder Inhalation Carrier System

For carrier-based dry-powder inhaler (DPI) formulations, the adhesion between carrier particles and active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) particles have a significant influence on the aerosolization performance of the API-carrier complexes and the desired detachment of the API for efficient pulmonary delivery. In our previous study, nanoporous mannitol material was successfully fabricated as carriers by a one-step nonorganic solvent spray drying method with the thermal degradation of ammonium carbonate. These carriers were shown to achieve excellent aerosolization performance. In addition, no residue of ammonium carbonate was detected on the powder surface. However, the safety of nanoporous mannitol carriers (Nano-PMCs) during pulmonary administration/delivery was still unknown because the lung is vulnerable to the inhaled particles. To address this question, the present study was conducted to construct a systematic safety evaluation for DPIs carriers to investigate the safety of Nano-PMCs in the whole inhalation, which would make up for the lack of detailed and standardized method in this field. In vitro safety evaluation was carried out using respiratory and pulmonary cytotoxicity tests, hemolysis assay, and ciliotoxicity test. In vivo safety evaluation was studied by measuring inflammatory indicators in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, assessing the pulmonary function and observing pulmonary pathological changes. Nano-PMCs showed satisfactory biocompatibility on respiratory tracts and lungs in vitro and in vivo. It was suggested that Nano-PMCs were safe for intrapulmonary delivery and potential as DPI carriers.