Variation in the vitamin D receptor gene, plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and risk of premenstrual symptoms

Associations Between Dietary Vitamin C, Serum Ascorbic Acid, and GSTT1 Genotype and Premenstrual Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Premenstrual symptoms are a cyclically occurring combination of adverse psychological and somatic symptoms that impact the quality of life for most females of childbearing age. Growing evidence suggests that diet may attenuate premenstrual symptoms; however, the relationship between vitamin C and premenstrual symptoms remains unclear. The aim of the research was to determine the association between different measures of vitamin C status and premenstrual symptoms.

METHOD

Females (n = 555) aged 20 to 29 years from the Toronto Nutrigenomics and Health Study completed a General Health and Lifestyle Questionnaire, capturing 15 premenstrual symptoms. Dietary intake was measured using a 196-item Toronto-modified Harvard food frequency questionnaire. Serum ascorbic acid concentrations were measured, and participants were categorized into deficient (<11 µmol/L), suboptimal (11-28 µmol/L), and adequate (>28 µmol/L) ascorbic acid levels. DNA was genotyped for the GSTT1 (Ins/Del) polymorphism. Using logistic regression, odds of experiencing premenstrual symptoms were compared between vitamin C intake levels above and below the recommended daily allowance (75 mg/d) between ascorbic acid levels and between GSTT1 genotypes.

RESULTS

Increased vitamin C intake was associated with premenstrual appetite changes (OR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.01-2.68). Compared to deficient ascorbic acid levels, suboptimal levels were associated with premenstrual appetite changes (OR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.02-6.58) and bloating/swelling (OR, 3.00; 95% CI, 1.09-8.22). Adequate serum ascorbic acid levels were not associated with premenstrual appetite changes (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 0.73-3.94) or bloating/swelling (OR, 1.92; 95% CI, 0.79-4.67). Those with the GSTT1 functional variant (Ins*Ins) had an increased risk of premenstrual bloating/swelling (OR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.10-3.48); however, the interaction between vitamin C intake and GSTT1 was not significant for any premenstrual symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that indicators of higher vitamin C status are associated with increased premenstrual appetite changes and bloating/swelling. The observed associations with GSTT1 genotype suggest that these observations are not likely due to reverse causation.

Plasma Carotenoids and Premenstrual Symptoms in a Multi-Ethnic Population of Young Women

Premenstrual symptoms are experienced by most women of reproductive age, but effective therapies are limited. Carotenoids may have an attenuating effect on premenstrual symptoms; however, studies to date are equivocal. The objective of the present study was to examine the association between plasma concentrations of seven carotenoids and premenstrual symptom severity in 553 women from the Toronto Nutrigenomics and Health study. Participants provided information on fifteen common premenstrual symptoms and severities. Each participant completed a General Health and Lifestyle Questionnaire and provided a fasting blood sample from which plasma carotenoid concentrations were measured. Multinomial logistic regressions were used to determine associations between plasma carotenoid concentrations and premenstrual symptom severity. Beta-cryptoxanthin was associated with moderate/severe increased appetite for women in the highest compared to the lowest tertile (OR: 2.33; 95% CI: 1.39, 3.89). This association remained significant after adjusting for multiple comparisons. There were no observed associations between other plasma carotenoids and any premenstrual symptoms. In summary, higher concentrations of beta-cryptoxanthin were associated with an increased appetite as a premenstrual symptom, but no associations were observed for any other carotenoid and for any other symptom.