Bmp-12 activates tenogenic pathway in human adipose stem cells and affects their immunomodulatory and secretory properties

3D-Bioprinted Co-Cultures of Glioblastoma Multiforme and Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Indicate a Role for Perivascular Niche Cells in Shaping Glioma Chemokine Microenvironment

3D bioprinting has become a valuable tool for studying the biology of solid tumors, including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Our analysis of publicly available bulk RNA and single-cell sequencing data has allowed us to define the chemotactic profile of GBM tumors and identify the cell types that secrete particular chemokines in the GBM tumor microenvironment (TME). Our findings indicate that primary GBM tissues express multiple chemokines, whereas spherical monocultures of GBM cells significantly lose this diversity. Subsequently, the comparative analysis of GBM spherical monocultures vs. 3D-bioprinted multicultures of cells showed a restoration of chemokine profile diversity in 3D-bioprinted cultures. Furthermore, single-cell RNA-Seq analysis showed that cells of the perivascular niche (pericytes and endocytes) express multiple chemokines in the GBM TME. Next, we 3D-bioprinted cells from two glioblastoma cell lines, U-251 and DK-MG, alone and as co-cultures with mesenchymal stromal cells (representing cells of the perivascular niche) and assessed the chemokine secretome. The results clearly demonstrated that the interaction of tumors and mesenchymal cells leads to in a significant increase in the repertoire and levels of secreted chemokines under culture in 21% O2 and 1% O2. Our study indicates that cells of the perivascular niche may perform a substantial role in shaping the chemokine microenvironment in GBM tumors.

Mechanobiological Strategies to Enhance Ovine (Ovis aries) Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Tendon Plasticity for Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering Applications

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) hold promise for tendon repair, even if their tenogenic plasticity and underlying mechanisms remain only partially understood, particularly in cells derived from the ovine animal model. This study aimed to characterize oADSCs during in vitro expansion to validate their phenotypic properties pre-transplantation. Moreover, their tenogenic potential was assessed using two in vitro-validated approaches: (1) teno-inductive conditioned media (CM) derived from a co-culture between ovine amniotic stem cells and fetal tendon explants, and (2) short- (48 h) and long-term (14 days) seeding on highly aligned PLGA (ha-PLGA) electrospun scaffold. Our findings indicate that oADSCs can be expanded without senescence and can maintain the expression of stemness (Sox2, Oct4, Nanog) and mesenchymal (CD29, CD166, CD44, CD90) markers while remaining negative for hematopoietic (CD31, CD45) and MHC-II antigens. Of note, oADSCs' tendon differentiation potential greatly depended on the in vitro strategy. oADSCs exposed to CM significantly upregulated tendon-related genes (COL1, TNMD, THBS4) but failed to accumulate TNMD protein at 14 days of culture. Conversely, oADSCs seeded on ha-PLGA fleeces quickly upregulated the tendon-related genes (48 h) and in 14 days accumulated high levels of the TNMD protein into the cytoplasm of ADSCs, displaying a tenocyte-like morphology. This mechano-sensing cellular response involved a complete SOX9 downregulation accompanied by YAP activation, highlighting the efficacy of biophysical stimuli in promoting tenogenic differentiation. These findings underscore oADSCs' long-term self-renewal and tendon differentiative potential, thus opening their use in a preclinical setting to develop innovative stem cell-based and tissue engineering protocols for tendon regeneration, applied to the veterinary field.

Recent Advances in the Use of Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering and Adjunct Therapies for Tendon Reconstruction and Future Perspectives

Due to their function, tendons are exposed to acute injuries. This type of damage to the musculoskeletal system represents a challenge for clinicians when natural regeneration and treatment methods do not produce the expected results. Currently, treatment is long and associated with long-term complications. In this review, we discuss the use of stem cells in the treatment of tendons, including how to induce appropriate cell differentiation based on gene therapy, growth factors, tissue engineering, proteins involved in regenerative process, drugs and three-dimensional (3D) structures. A multidirectional approach as well as the incorporation of novel components of the therapy will improve the techniques used and benefit patients with tendon injuries in the future.

Mesoporous Particle Embedded Nanofibrous Scaffolds Sustain Biological Factors for Tendon Tissue Engineering

In recent years, fiber-based systems have been explored in the frame of tissue engineering due to their robustness in recapitulating the architecture and mechanical properties of native tissues. Such scaffolds offer anisotropic architecture capable of reproducing the native collagen fibers' orientation and distribution. Moreover, fibrous constructs might provide a biomimetic environment for cell encapsulation and proliferation as well as influence their orientation and distribution. In this work, we combine two fiber fabrication techniques, such as electrospinning and wet-spinning, in order to obtain novel cell-laden 3D fibrous layered scaffolds which can simultaneously provide: (i) mechanical support; (ii) suitable microenvironment for 3D cell encapsulation; and (iii) loading and sustained release of growth factors for promoting the differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hB-MSCs). The constructs are formed from wet-spun hydrogel fibers loaded with hB-MSCs deposited on a fibrous composite electrospun matrix made of polycaprolactone, polyamide 6, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles enriched with bone morphogenetic protein-12 (BMP-12). Morphological and mechanical characterizations of the structures were carried out, and the growth factor release was assessed. The biological response in terms of cell viability, alignment, differentiation, and extracellular matrix production was investigated. Ex vivo testing of the layered structure was performed to prove the layers' integrity when subjected to mechanical stretching in the physiological range. The results reveal that 3D layered scaffolds can be proposed as valid candidates for tendon tissue engineering.

Stem Cell Applications and Tenogenic Differentiation Strategies for Tendon Repair

Tendons are associated with a high injury risk because of their overuse and age-related tissue degeneration. Thus, tendon injuries pose great clinical and economic challenges to the society. Unfortunately, the natural healing capacity of tendons is far from perfect, and they respond poorly to conventional treatments when injured. Consequently, tendons require a long period of healing and recovery, and the initial strength and function of a repaired tendon cannot be completely restored as it is prone to a high rate of rerupture. Nowadays, the application of various stem cell sources, including mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and embryonic stem cells (ESCs), for tendon repair has shown great potential, because these cells can differentiate into a tendon lineage and promote functional tendon repair. However, the mechanism underlying tenogenic differentiation remains unclear. Moreover, no widely adopted protocol has been established for effective and reproducible tenogenic differentiation because of the lack of definitive biomarkers for identifying the tendon differentiation cascades. This work is aimed at reviewing the literature over the past decade and providing an overview of background information on the clinical relevance of tendons and the urgent need to improve tendon repair; the advantages and disadvantages of different stem cell types used for boosting tendon repair; and the unique advantages of reported strategies for tenogenic differentiation, including growth factors, gene modification, biomaterials, and mechanical stimulation.

Dexamethasone Is Not Sufficient to Facilitate Tenogenic Differentiation of Dermal Fibroblasts in a 3D Organoid Model

Self-assembling three-dimensional organoids that do not rely on an exogenous scaffold but maintain their native cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix interactions represent a promising model in the field of tendon tissue engineering. We have identified dermal fibroblasts (DFs) as a potential cell type for generating functional tendon-like tissue. The glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX) has been shown to regulate cell proliferation and facilitate differentiation towards other mesenchymal lineages. Therefore, we hypothesized that the administration of DEX could reduce excessive DF proliferation and thus, facilitate the tenogenic differentiation of DFs using a previously established 3D organoid model combined with dose-dependent application of DEX. Interestingly, the results demonstrated that DEX, in all tested concentrations, was not sufficient to notably induce the tenogenic differentiation of human DFs and DEX-treated organoids did not have clear advantages over untreated control organoids. Moreover, high concentrations of DEX exerted a negative impact on the organoid phenotype. Nevertheless, the expression profile of tendon-related genes of untreated and 10 nM DEX-treated DF organoids was largely comparable to organoids formed by tendon-derived cells, which is encouraging for further investigations on utilizing DFs for tendon tissue engineering.

Age-related cellular and microstructural changes in the rotator cuff enthesis

Rotator cuff injuries increase with age. The enthesis is the most frequent site of rotator cuff injury and degeneration. Understanding age-related changes of the enthesis are essential to determine the mechanism of rotator cuff injuries, degeneration, and to guide mechanistically driven therapies. In this study, we explored age-related cellular changes of the rotator cuff enthesis in young, mature, and aged rats. Here we found that the aged enthesis is typified by an increased mineralized zone and decreased nonmineralized zone. Proliferation, migration, and colony-forming potential of rotator cuff derived cells (RCECs) was attenuated with aging. The tenogenic and chondrogenic potential were significantly reduced, while the osteogenic potential increased in aged RCECs. The adipogenic potential increased in RCECs with age. This study explores the cellular differences found between young, mature, and aged rotator cuff enthesis cells and highlights the importance of using age-appropriate models, as well as provides a basis for further delineation of mechanisms and potential therapeutics for rotator cuff injuries.

Tendon tissue engineering: Current progress towards an optimized tenogenic differentiation protocol for human stem cells

Tendons are integral to our daily lives by allowing movement and locomotion but are frequently injured, leading to patient discomfort and impaired mobility. Current clinical procedures are unable to fully restore the native structure of the tendon, resulting in loss of full functionality, and the weakened tissue following repair often re-ruptures. Tendon tissue engineering, involving the combination of cells with biomaterial scaffolds to form new tendon tissue, holds promise to improve patient outcomes. A key requirement for efficacy in promoting tendon tissue formation is the optimal differentiation of the starting cell populations, most commonly adult tissue-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), into tenocytes, the predominant cellular component of tendon tissue. Currently, a lack of consensus on the protocols for effective tenogenic differentiation is hampering progress in tendon tissue engineering. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge regarding human stem cell differentiation towards tenocytes and tendon tissue formation. Tendon development and healing mechanisms are described, followed by a comprehensive overview of the current protocols for tenogenic differentiation, including the effects of biochemical and biophysical cues, and their combination, on tenogenesis. Lastly, a synthesis of the key features of these protocols is used to design future approaches. The holistic evaluation of current knowledge should facilitate and expedite the development of efficacious stem cell tenogenic differentiation protocols with future impact in tendon tissue engineering. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The lack of a widely-adopted tenogenic differentiation protocol has been a major hurdle in the tendon tissue engineering field. Building on current knowledge on tendon development and tendon healing, this review surveys peer-reviewed protocols to present a holistic evaluation and propose a pathway to facilitate and expedite the development of a consensus protocol for stem cell tenogenic differentiation and tendon tissue engineering.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Sheets for Engineering of the Tendon-Bone Interface

Failure to regenerate the gradient tendon-bone interface of the enthesis results in poor clinical outcomes for surgical repair. The goal of this study was to evaluate the potential of composite cell sheets for engineering of the tendon-bone interface to improve regeneration of the functionally graded tissue. We hypothesize that stacking cell sheets at early stages of differentiation into tenogenic and osteogenic progenitors will create a composite structure with integrated layers. Cell sheets were fabricated on methyl cellulose and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) thermally reversible polymers with human adipose-derived stem cells and differentiated into progenitors of tendon and bone with chemical induction media. Tenogenic and osteogenic cell sheets were stacked, and the engineered tendon-bone interface (TM-OM) was characterized in vitro in comparison to stacked cell sheet controls cultured in basal growth medium (GM-GM), osteogenic medium (OM-OM), and tenogenic medium (TM-TM). Samples were characterized by histology, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescent staining for markers of tendon, fibrocartilage, and bone including mineralization, scleraxis, tenomodulin, COL2, COLX, RUNX2, osteonectin, and osterix. After 1 week co-culture in basal growth medium, TM-OM cell sheets formed a tissue construct with integrated layers expressing markers of tendon, mineralized fibrocartilage, and bone with a spatial gradient in RUNX2 expression. Tenogenic cell sheets had increased expression of scleraxis and tenomodulin. Osteogenic cell sheets exhibited mineralization 1 week after stacking and upregulation of osterix and osteonectin. Additionally, in the engineered interface, there was significantly increased gene expression of IHH and COLX, indicative of endochondral ossification. These results highlight the potential for composite cell sheets fabricated with adipose-derived stem cells for engineering of the tendon-bone interface. Impact statement This study presents a method for fabrication of the tendon-bone interface using stacked cell sheets of tenogenic and osteogenic progenitors differentiated from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells, resulting in a composite structure expressing markers of tendon, mineralized fibrocartilage, and bone. This work is an important step toward regeneration of the biological gradient of the enthesis and demonstrates the potential for engineering complex tissue interfaces from a single autologous cell source to facilitate clinical translation.

Scaffold-Mediated Immunoengineering as Innovative Strategy for Tendon Regeneration

Tendon injuries are at the frontier of innovative approaches to public health concerns and sectoral policy objectives. Indeed, these injuries remain difficult to manage due to tendon’s poor healing ability ascribable to a hypo-cellularity and low vascularity, leading to the formation of a fibrotic tissue affecting its functionality. Tissue engineering represents a promising solution for the regeneration of damaged tendons with the aim to stimulate tissue regeneration or to produce functional implantable biomaterials. However, any technological advancement must take into consideration the role of the immune system in tissue regeneration and the potential of biomaterial scaffolds to control the immune signaling, creating a pro-regenerative environment. In this context, immunoengineering has emerged as a new discipline, developing innovative strategies for tendon injuries. It aims at designing scaffolds, in combination with engineered bioactive molecules and/or stem cells, able to modulate the interaction between the transplanted biomaterial-scaffold and the host tissue allowing a pro-regenerative immune response, therefore hindering fibrosis occurrence at the injury site and guiding tendon regeneration. Thus, this review is aimed at giving an overview on the role exerted from different tissue engineering actors in leading immunoregeneration by crosstalking with stem and immune cells to generate new paradigms in designing regenerative medicine approaches for tendon injuries.

Tendon Tissue Repair in Prospective of Drug Delivery, Regenerative Medicines, and Innovative Bioscaffolds

The natural healing capacity of the tendon tissue is limited due to the hypovascular and cellular nature of this tissue. So far, several conventional approaches have been tested for tendon repair to accelerate the healing process, but all these approaches have their own advantages and limitations. Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering are interdisciplinary fields that aspire to develop novel medical devices, innovative bioscaffold, and nanomedicine, by combining different cell sources, biodegradable materials, immune modulators, and nanoparticles for tendon tissue repair. Different studies supported the idea that bioscaffolds can provide an alternative for tendon augmentation with an enormous therapeutic potentiality. However, available data are lacking to allow definitive conclusion on the use of bioscaffolds for tendon regeneration and repairing. In this review, we provide an overview of the current basic understanding and material science in the field of bioscaffolds, nanomedicine, and tissue engineering for tendon repair.

The Effect of L-Ascorbic Acid and Serum Reduction on Tenogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

Background and Objectives

Despite significant improvement in the treatment of tendon injuries, the full tissue recovery is often not possible because of its limited ability to auto-repair. The transplantation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) is considered as a novel approach in the treatment of tendinopathies. The question about the optimal culture conditions remains open. In this study we aimed to investigate if serum reduction, L-ascorbic acid supplementation or a combination of both factors can induce tenogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived MSCs (ASCs).

Methods and Results

Human ASCs from 3 healthy donors were used in the study. The tested conditions were: 0.5 mM of ascorbic acid 2-phosphate (AA-2P), reduced serum content (2% FBS) or combination of these two factors. The combination of AA-2P and 2% FBS was the only experimental condition that caused a significant increase of the expression of all analyzed genes related to tenogenesis (SCLERAXIS, MOHAWK, COLLAGEN_1, COLLAGEN_3, DECORIN) in comparison to the untreated control (evaluated by RT-PCR, 5^th day of experiment). Moreover, this treatment significantly increased the synthesis of SCLERAXIS, MOHAWK, COLLAGEN_1, COLLAGEN_3 proteins at the same time point (evaluated by Western blot method). Double immunocytochemical staining revealed that AA-2P significantly increased the extracellular deposition of both types of collagens. Semi-quantitative Electron Spin Resonance analysis of ascorbyl free radical revealed that AA-2P do not induce harmful transition metals-driven redox reactions in cell culture media.

Conclusions

Obtained results justify the use of reduced content of serum with the addition of 0.5 mM of AA-2P in tenogenic inducing media.

Comparative Analysis of Tenogenic Gene Expression in Tenocyte-Derived Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Response to Biochemical and Biomechanical Stimuli

The tendon is highly prone to injury, overuse, or age-related degeneration in both humans and horses. Natural healing of injured tendon is poor, and cell-based therapeutic treatment is still a significant clinical challenge. In this study, we extensively investigated the expression of tenogenic genes in equine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and tenocyte-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (teno-iPSCs) stimulated by growth factors (TGF-β3 and BMP12) combined with ectopic expression of tenogenic transcription factor MKX or cyclic uniaxial mechanical stretch. Western blotting revealed that TGF-β3 and BMP12 increased the expression of transcription factors SCX and MKX in both cells, but the tenocyte marker tenomodulin (TNMD) was detected only in BMSCs and upregulated by either inducer. On the other hand, quantitative real-time PCR showed that TGF-β3 increased the expression of EGR1, COL1A2, FMOD, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs. BMP12 treatment elevated SCX, MKX, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs. Overexpression of MKX increased SCX, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in BMSCs and EGR1, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs; TGF-β3 further enhanced TNC in BMSCs. Moreover, mechanical stretch increased SCX, EGR1, DCN, ELN, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, MKX, EGR1, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs; TGF-β3 tended to further elevate SCX, ELN, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, MKX, COL1A2, DCN, and TNC in teno-iPSCs, while BMP12 further uptrended the expression of SCX and DCN in BMSCs and DCN in teno-iPSCs. Additionally, the aforementioned tenogenic inducers also affected the expression of signaling regulators SMAD7, ETV4, and SIRT1 in BMSCs and teno-iPSCs. Taken together, our data demonstrate that, in respect to the tenocyte-lineage-specific gene expression, BMSCs and teno-iPSCs respond differently to the tenogenic stimuli, which may affect the outcome of their application in tendon repair or regeneration.

Vadadustat, a HIF Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibitor, Improves Immunomodulatory Properties of Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

The therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) is largely attributed to their immunomodulatory properties, which can be further improved by hypoxia priming. In this study, we investigated the immunomodulatory properties of MSCs preconditioned with hypoxia-mimetic Vadadustat (AKB-6548, Akebia). Gene expression analysis of immunomodulatory factors was performed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) on RNA isolated from six human bone-marrow derived MSCs populations preconditioned for 6 h with 40 μM Vadadustat compared to control MSCs. The effect of Vadadustat preconditioning on MSCs secretome was determined using Proteome Profiler and Luminex, while their immunomodulatory activity was assessed by mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) and Culturex transwell migration assays. Real-time PCR revealed that Vadadustat downregulated genes related to immune system: IL24, IL1B, CXCL8, PDCD1LG1, PDCD1LG2, HIF1A, CCL2 and IL6, and upregulated IL17RD, CCL28 and LEP. Vadadustat caused a marked decrease in the secretion of IL6 (by 51%), HGF (by 47%), CCL7 (MCP3) (by 42%) and CXCL8 (by 40%). Vadadustat potentiated the inhibitory effect of MSCs on the proliferation of alloactivated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and reduced monocytes-enriched PBMCs chemotaxis towards the MSCs secretome. Preconditioning with Vadadustat may constitute a valuable approach to improve the therapeutic properties of MSCs.

In Vitro Innovation of Tendon Tissue Engineering Strategies

Tendinopathy is the term used to refer to tendon disorders. Spontaneous adult tendon healing results in scar tissue formation and fibrosis with suboptimal biomechanical properties, often resulting in poor and painful mobility. The biomechanical properties of the tissue are negatively affected. Adult tendons have a limited natural healing capacity, and often respond poorly to current treatments that frequently are focused on exercise, drug delivery, and surgical procedures. Therefore, it is of great importance to identify key molecular and cellular processes involved in the progression of tendinopathies to develop effective therapeutic strategies and drive the tissue toward regeneration. To treat tendon diseases and support tendon regeneration, cell-based therapy as well as tissue engineering approaches are considered options, though none can yet be considered conclusive in their reproduction of a safe and successful long-term solution for full microarchitecture and biomechanical tissue recovery. In vitro differentiation techniques are not yet fully validated. This review aims to compare different available tendon in vitro differentiation strategies to clarify the state of art regarding the differentiation process.

Induction of Tendon-Specific Markers in Adipose-Derived Stem Cells in Serum-Free Culture Conditions

IMPACT STATEMENT

Herein, we describe the tenogenic effect of bone morphogenetic protein-12 and transforming growth factor-β1 in cultured adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) in serum-free conditions. This culture system provides an insight into serum-free culture conditions in stem cell differentiation protocols. A positive response of the ADSCs to the tenogenic induction was observed. In particular, the different growth factors used in this study displayed notable differences both on the gene and on the protein expression of the tendon-specific markers. The results underline the positive outcome of the serum removal in tenogenic differentiation protocols, contributing to the development of future cell-based therapies for tendon regeneration and repair.

Tenocyte-imprinted substrate: a topography-based inducer for tenogenic differentiation in adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Tendon tissue engineering based on stem cell differentiation has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Previous studies have examined the effect of cell-imprinted polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate on induction differentiation in stem cells. In this study, we used tenocyte morphology as a positive mold to create a tenocyte-imprinted substrate on PDMS. The morphology and topography of this tenocyte replica on PDMS was evaluated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy. The tenogenic differentiation induction capacity of the tenocyte replica in adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) was then investigated and compared with other groups, including tissue replica (which was produced similarly to the tenocyte replica and was evaluated by SEM), decellularized tendon, and bone morphogenic protein (BMP)-12, as other potential inducers. This comparison gives us an estimate of the ability of tenocyte-imprinted PDMS (called cell replica in the present study) to induce differentiation compared to other inducers. For this reason, ADSCs were divided into five groups, including control, cell replica, tissue replica, decellularized tendon and BMP-12. ADSCs were seeded on each group separately and investigated by the real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique after seven and 14 days. Our results showed that in spite of the higher effect of the growth factor on tenogenic differentiation, the cell replica can also induce tenocyte marker expression (scleraxis and tenomodulin) in ADSCs. Moreover, the tenogenic differentiation induction capacity of the cell replica was greater than tissue replica. Immunocytochemistry analysis revealed that ADSCs seeding on the cell replica for 14 days led to scleraxis and tenomodulin expression at the protein level. In addition, immunohistochemistry indicated that contrary to the promising results in vitro, there was little difference between ADSCs cultured on tenocyte-imprinted PDMS and untreated ADSCs. The results of such studies could lead to the production of inexpensive cell culture plates or biomaterials that can induce differentiation in stem cells without growth factors or other supplements.

Copper Does Not Induce Tenogenic Differentiation but Promotes Migration and Increases Lysyl Oxidase Activity in Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

Background

Copper belongs to the essential trace metals that play a key role in the course of cellular processes maintaining the whole body's homeostasis. As there is a growing interest in transplanting mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) into the site of injury to improve the regeneration of damaged tendons, the purpose of the study was to verify whether copper supplementation may have a positive effect on the properties of human adipose tissue-derived MSCs (hASCs) which potentially can contribute to improvement of tendon healing.

Results

Cellular respiration of hASCs decreased with increasing cupric sulfate concentrations after 5 days of incubation. The treatment with CuSO₄ did not positively affect the expression of genes associated with tenogenesis (COL1α1, COL3α1, MKX, and SCX). However, the level of COL1α1 protein, whose transcript was decreased in comparison to a control, was elevated after a 5-day exposition to 25 μM CuSO₄. The content of the MKX and SCX protein in hASCs exposed to cupric sulfate was reduced compared to that of untreated control cells, and the level of the COL3α1 protein, whose transcript was decreased in comparison to a control, was elevated after a 5-day exposition to 25 μM CuSO₄. The content of the MKX and SCX protein in hASCs exposed to cupric sulfate was reduced compared to that of untreated control cells, and the level of the COL3.

Conclusion

Copper sulfate supplementation can have a beneficial effect on tendon regeneration not by inducing tenogenic differentiation, but by improving the recruitment of MSCs to the site of injury, where they can secrete growth factors, cytokines and chemokines, and prevent the effects of oxidative stress at the site of inflammation, as well as improve the stabilization of collagen fibers, thereby accelerating the process of tendon healing.

The Development of Extracellular Vesicle-Integrated Biomaterials for Bone Regeneration

The clinical need for effective bone regeneration remains in huge demands. Although autologous and allogeneic bone grafts are generally considered "gold standard" treatments for bone defects, these approaches may result in various complications. Furthermore, safety considerations of gene- and cell-based therapies require further clarification and approval from regulatory authorities. Therefore, developing new therapeutic biomaterials that can empower endogenous regenerative properties to accelerate bone repair and regeneration is of great significance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) comprise a heterogeneous population of naturally derived nanoparticles that play a critical role in mediating cell-cell communication. The vast amount of biological processes that EVs are involved in, such as immune modulation, senescence, and angiogenesis, and the versatility of manner in which they can influence the behavior of recipient cells make EVs an interesting source for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Advancement of knowledge in the fields of immunology and cell biology has sparked the exploration of the potential of EVs in the field of regenerative medicine. EVs travel between cells and deliver functional cargoes, such as proteins and RNAs, thereby regulating the recruitment, proliferation, and differentiation of recipient cells. Numerous studies have demonstrated the pivotal role of EVs in tissue regeneration both in vitro and in vivo. In this chapter, we will outline current knowledge surrounding EVs, summarize their functional roles in bone regenerative medicine, and elaborate on potential application and challenges of EV-integrated biomaterials in bone tissue engineering.

Isolation and Characterization of Multipotent Canine Urine-Derived Stem Cells

Current cell-based therapies on musculoskeletal tissue regeneration were mostly determined in rodent models. However, a direct translation of those promising cell-based therapies to humans exists a significant hurdle. For solving this problem, canine has been developed as a new large animal model to bridge the gap from rodents to humans. In this study, we reported the isolation and characterization of urine-derived stem cells (USCs) from mature healthy beagle dogs. The isolated cells showed fibroblast-like morphology and had good clonogenicity and proliferation. Meanwhile, these cells positively expressed multiple markers of MSCs (CD29, CD44, CD90, and CD73), but negatively expressed for hematopoietic antigens (CD11b, CD34, and CD45). Additionally, after induction culturing, the isolated cells can be differentiated into osteogenic, adipogenic, chondrogenic, and tenogenic lineages. The successful isolation and verification of USCs from canine were useful for studying cell-based therapies and developing new treatments for musculoskeletal injuries using the preclinical canine model.

Co-cultured Bone-marrow Derived and Tendon Stem Cells: Novel Seed Cells for Bone Regeneration

Tendon-bone healing after injury is an unsolved problem. Several types of stem cells are used as seed cells. However, the optimal co-culture ratio of different types of cells suitable for tissue engineering as well as the stimulator for facilitating the differentiation of stem cells in tendon-bone healing is unclear. In this study, the proliferation of both bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMSCs) and tendon stem cells (TSCs) was increased at a 1:1 co-cultured ratio, and proliferation was suppressed by Tenascin C (TNC). TNC treatment can promote osteogenesis or chondrogenesis of both BMSCs and TSCs under a 1:1 co-cultured ratio. In addition, the expression level of Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) increased in the process of TNC-induced osteogenesis and decreased in the process of TNC-induced chondrogenesis. Furthermore, the level of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) was upregulated during the osteogenesis and chondrogenesis of both BMSCs and TSCs after TNC treatment. Although our study was conducted in rats with no direct evaluation of the resulting cells for tendon-bone healing and regeneration, we show that the proliferation of BMSCs and TSCs was enhanced under a 1:1 co-cultured ratio. TNC has a significant impact on the proliferation and differentiation of co-cultured BMSCs and TSCs. IGF-IR, ROCK, and MEK may become involved in the process after TNC treatment.

Isolation and characterization of turkey bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Flexor tendon injury is often associated with suboptimal outcomes and results in substantial digit dysfunction. Stem cells have been isolated from several experimental animals for the growing interest and needs of utilizing cell-based therapies. Recently, turkey has been developed as a new large animal model for flexor tendon research. In the present study, we reported the isolation and characterization of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) from 8- to 12-month-old heritage-breed turkeys. The isolated cells demonstrated fibroblast-like morphology, clonogenic capacity, and high proliferation rate. These cells were positive for surface antigens CD90, CD105, and CD44, but were negative for CD45. The multipotency of turkey BMSCs was determined by differentiating cells into osteogenic, adipogenic, chondrogenic, and tenogenic lineages. There was upregulated gene expression of tenogenic markers, including mohawk, tenomodulin, and EGR1 as well as increased collagen synthesis in BMP12 induced cells. The successful isolation and verification of bone marrow-derived MSCs from turkey would provide opportunities of studying cell-based therapies and developing new treatments for tendon injuries using this novel preclinical large animal model. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:1419-1428, 2019.

Optimizing growth factor induction of tenogenesis in three-dimensional culture of mesenchymal stem cells

Adult tissue stem cells have shown promise for the treatment of debilitating tendon injuries. However, few comparisons of stem cells from different tissue sources have been made to determine the optimum stem cell source for treating tendon. Moreover, it is likely that the application of tenogenic growth factors will improve tendon stem cell treatments further, and a comprehensive comparison of a number of growth factors is needed. Thus far, different types of stem cells cannot be evaluated in a high-throughput manner. To this end, we have developed an approach to culture mesenchymal stem cells isolated from bone marrow in collagen type I hydrogels with tenogenic growth factors using economical, commercially available supplies. To optimize growth factors for this assay, FGF-2, TGF-β1, IGF-1, and/or BMP-12 were tested singly and in novel combinations of (1) BMP-12 and IGF-1, (2) TGF-β1 and IGF-1, and/or (3) BMP-12 and FGF-2 over 10 days. Our data suggest that BMP-12 supplementation alone results in the strongest expression of tendon marker genes, controlled contractility of constructs, a higher degree of cell alignment, and tendon-like tissue morphology. This easy-to-use benchtop assay can be used to screen novel sources of stem cells and cell lines for tissue engineering and tendon healing applications.

The Influence of Cell Source and Donor Age on the Tenogenic Potential and Chemokine Secretion of Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells

Background

Cellular therapy is proposed for tendinopathy treatment. Bone marrow- (BM-MSC) and adipose tissue- (ASC) derived mesenchymal stromal cells are candidate populations for such a therapy. The first aim of the study was to compare human BM-MSCs and ASCs for their basal expression of factors associated with tenogenesis as well as chemotaxis. The additional aim was to evaluate if the donor age influences these features.

Methods

Cells were isolated from 24 human donors, 8 for each group: hASC, hBM-MSC Y (age ≤ 45), and hBM-MSC A (age > 45). The microarray analysis was performed on RNA isolated from hASC and hBM-MSC A cells. Based on microarray results, 8 factors were chosen for further evaluation. Two genes were additionally included in the analysis: SCLERAXIS and PPARγ. All these 10 factors were tested for gene expression by the qRT-PCR method, and all except of RUNX2 were additionally evaluated for protein expression or secretion.

Results

Microarray analysis showed over 1,400 genes with a significantly different expression between hASC and hBM-MSC groups. Eight of these genes were selected for further analysis: CXCL6, CXCL12, CXCL16, TGF-β2, SMAD3, COLLAGEN 14A1, MOHAWK, and RUNX2. In the subsequent qRT-PCR analysis, hBM-MSCs showed a significantly higher expression than did hASCs in following genes: CXCL12, CXCL16, TGF-β2, SMAD3, COLLAGEN 14A1, and SCLERAXIS (p < 0.05, regardless of BM donor age). In the case of CXCL12, the difference between hASC and hBM-MSC was significant only for younger BM donors, whereas for COLLAGEN 14A1—only for elder BM donors. PPARγ displayed a higher expression in hASCs compared to hBM-MSCs. In regard to CXCL6, MOHAWK, and RUNX2 gene expression, no statistically significant differences between groups were observed.

Conclusions

In the context of cell-based therapy for tendinopathies, bone marrow appears to be a more attractive source of MSCs than does adipose tissue. The age of cell donors seems to be less important than cell source, although cells from elder donors show slightly higher basal tenogenic potential than do cells from younger donors.

In Vitro Induction of Tendon-Specific Markers in Tendon Cells, Adipose- and Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cells is Dependent on TGFβ3, BMP-12 and Ascorbic Acid Stimulation

Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) and tissue-specific progenitors have been proposed as useful tools for regenerative medicine approaches in bone, cartilage and tendon-related pathologies. The differentiation of cells towards the desired, target tissue-specific lineage has demonstrated advantages in the application of cell therapies and tissue engineering. Unlike osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation, there is no consensus on the best tenogenic induction protocol. Many growth factors have been proposed for this purpose, including BMP-12, b-FGF, TGF-β3, CTGF, IGF-1 and ascorbic acid (AA). In this study, different combinations of these growth factors have been tested in the context of a two-step differentiation protocol, in order to define their contribution to the induction and maintenance of tendon marker expression in adipose tissue and bone marrow derived MSCs and tendon cells (TCs), respectively. Our results demonstrate that TGF-β3 is the main inducer of scleraxis, an early expressed tendon marker, while at the same time inhibiting tendon markers normally expressed later, such as decorin. In contrast, we find that decorin is induced by BMP-12, b-FGF and AA. Our results provide new insights into the effect of different factors on the tenogenic induction of MSCs and TCs, highlighting the importance of differential timing in TGF-β3 stimulation.

Tenogenically differentiated adipose-derived stem cells are effective in Achilles tendon repair in vivo

The purpose of this study was to characterize rat adipose-derived stem cells, induce adipose-derived stem cell tenogenesis, and analyze adipose-derived stem cell effects on tendon repair in vivo. Adipose-derived stem cells demonstrated an immunomodulatory, pro-angiogenic, and pro-proliferatory profile in vitro. Tenogenesis was induced for 1, 7, 14, and 21 days with 24 combinations of growth differentiation factor-5, 6, and 7 and platelet-derived growth factor–BB. Adipose-derived stem cells expression of scleraxis and collagen type I increased the most after 14 days of induction with growth differentiation factor-6 and platelet-derived growth factor–BB. Achilles excision defects injected with hydrogel alone (Gp2), with undifferentiated (Gp3) adipose-derived stem cells, or tenogenically differentiated (Gp4) adipose-derived stem cells exhibited improved tissue repair compared with untreated tendons (Gp1). Addition of adipose-derived stem cells improved tissue cytoarchitecture and increased expression of collagen type I and III, scleraxis, and tenomodulin. Adipose-derived stem cells significantly improved biomechanical properties (ultimate load and elastic toughness) over time more than hydrogel alone, while tenogenically differentiated adipose-derived stem cells improved the mean histological score and collagen fiber dispersion range closest to normal tendon. In addition, tendon sections treated with GFP-adipose-derived stem cells exhibited green fluorescence and positive GFP immunostaining on microscopy confirming the in vivo survival of adipose-derived stem cells that were injected into tendon defects to support the effects of adipose-derived stem cells on tissue up to 4.5 weeks post injury.

Nanoscaled and microscaled parallel topography promotes tenogenic differentiation of ASC and neotendon formation in vitro

Background

Topography at different scales plays an important role in directing mesenchymal stem cell differentiation including adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) and the differential effect remains to be investigated.

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate the similarity and difference between micro- and nanoscaled aligned topography for inducing tenogenic differentiation of human ASCs (hASCs).

Methods

Parallel microgrooved PDMS membrane and a parallel aligned electrospun nanofibers of gelatin/poly-ε-caprolactone mixture were employed as the models for the study.

Results

Aligned topographies of both microscales and nanoscales could induce an elongated cell shape with parallel alignment, as supported by quantitative cell morphology analysis (cell area, cell body aspect, and cell body major axis angle). qPCR analysis also demonstrated that the aligned topography at both scales could induce the gene expressions of various tenogenic markers at the 7th day of in vitro culture including tenomodulin, collagen I and collagen VI, decorin, tenascin-C and biglycan, but with upregulated expression of scleraxis and tenascin-C only in microscaled topography. Additionally, tenogenic differentiation at the 3rd day was confirmed only at microscale. Furthermore, microscaled topography was confirmed for its tenogenic induction at tissue level as neotendon tissue was formed with the evidence of mature type I collagen fibers only in parallel aligned polyglycolic acid (PGA) microfibers after in vitro culture with mouse ASCs. Instead, only fat tissue was formed in random patterned PGA microfibers.

Conclusion

Both microscaled and nanoscaled aligned topographies could induce tenogenic differentiation of hASCs and micro-scaled topography seemed better able to induce elongated cell shape and stable tenogenic marker expression when compared to nanoscaled topography. The microscaled inductive effect was also confirmed at tissue level by neotendon formation in vitro.

Housekeeping Gene Stability in Human Mesenchymal Stem and Tendon Cells Exposed to Tenogenic Factors

The use of biochemical inducers of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation into tenogenic lineage represents an investigated aspect of tendon disorder treatment. Bone morphogenetic protein 12 (BMP-12) is a widely studied factor, representing along with ascorbic acid (AA) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) one of the most promising stimulus in this context so far. Quantitative gene expression of specific tenogenic marker is commonly used to assess the efficacy of these supplements. Nevertheless, the reliability of these data is strongly associated with the choice of stable housekeeping genes. To date, no published studies have evaluated the stability of housekeeping genes in MSCs during tenogenic induction. Three candidate housekeeping genes (YWHAZ, RPL13A, and GAPDH) in human MSCs from bone marrow (BMSCs), adipose tissue (ASCs), and tendon cells (TCs) supplemented with BMP-12 or AA and bFGF in comparison with control untreated cells for 3 and 10 days were evaluated. GeNorm, NormFinder, and BestKeeper tools and the comparative ΔCt method were used to evaluate housekeeping gene stability and the overall ranking was determined by using by the RefFinder algorithm. In all culture conditions, YWHAZ was the most stable gene and RPL13A was the second choice. YWHAZ and RPL13A were the two most stable genes also for ASCs and BMSCs, regardless of the time point analyzed, and for TCs at 10 days of tenogenic induction. Only for TCs at 3 days of tenogenic induction were GAPDH and YWHAZ the best performers. In conclusion, our findings will be useful for the proper selection of housekeeping genes in studies involving MSCs cultured in the presence of tenogenic factors, to obtain accurate and high-quality data from quantitative gene expression analysis.

Boosting tendon repair: interplay of cells, growth factors and scaffold-free and gel-based carriers

Background

Tendons are dense connective tissues and critical components for the integrity and function of the musculoskeletal system. Tendons connect bone to muscle and transmit forces on which locomotion entirely depends. Due to trauma, overuse and age-related degeneration, many people suffer from acute or chronic tendon injuries. Owing to their hypovascularity and hypocellularity, tendinopathies remain a substantial challenge for both clinicians and researchers. Surgical treatment includes suture or transplantation of autograft, allograft or xenograft, and these serve as the most common technique for rescuing tendon injuries. However, the therapeutic efficacies are limited by drawbacks including inevitable donor site morbidity, poor graft integration, adhesion formations and high rates of recurrent tearing. This review summarizes the literature of the past 10 y concerning scaffold-free and gel-based approaches for treating tendon injuries, with emphasis on specific advantages of such modes of application, as well as the obtained results regarding in vitro and in vivo tenogenesis.

Results

The search was focused on publications released after 2006 and 83 articles have been analysed. The main results are summarizing and discussing the clear advantages of scaffold-free and hydrogels carriers that can be functionalized with cells alone or in combination with growth factors.

Conclusion

The improved understanding of tissue resident adult stem cells has made a significant progress in recent years as well as strategies to steer their fate toward tendon lineage, with the help of growth factors, have been identified. The field of tendon tissue engineering is exploring diverse models spanning from hard scaffolds to gel-based and scaffold-free approaches seeking easier cell delivery and integration in the site of injury. Still, the field needs to consider a multifactorial approach that is based on the combination and fine-tuning of chemical and biomechanical stimuli. Taken together, tendon tissue engineering has now excellent foundations and enters the period of precision and translation to models with clinical relevance on which better treatment options of tendon injuries can be shaped up.