An annual cycle of gene regulation in the red-legged salamander mental gland: from hypertrophy to expression of rapidly evolving pheromones

Androgen Receptors in the Dermal Glands of Male and Female Ouachita Dusky Salamanders

The presence of androgens in female development is an important, yet often overlooked, topic. We tested for the presence of androgen receptors (ARs) in the dermal glands of male and female Desmognathus brimleyorum, a plethodontid salamander. This species engages in a courtship behavior called the tail-straddling walk. During this process, communication between males and females is hypothesized to be facilitated by pheromones secreted from modified granular glands (MGGs) on the dorsal tail base, where the female's chin is positioned. These glands are present not only dorsally but also laterally and ventrally on the tail of both males and females. Using immunohistochemistry with a polyclonal antibody, ARs were located in the MGGs of both sexes. Males had a higher percentage of immunopositive cells per MGG than females. The presence of ARs in both sexes highlights the similarity between MGGs in males and females and suggests androgens play a role in female gland function. Furthermore, our results suggest courtship communication is bidirectional, and females have a more active role, signaling the male, than previously described.

Recurrent Co-Option and Recombination of Cytokine and Three Finger Proteins in Multiple Reproductive Tissues Throughout Salamander Evolution

Reproductive proteins evolve at unparalleled rates, resulting in tremendous diversity of both molecular composition and biochemical function between gametes of different taxonomic clades. To date, the proteomic composition of amphibian gametes is largely a molecular mystery, particularly for Urodeles (salamanders and newts) for which few genomic-scale resources exist. In this study, we provide the first detailed molecular characterization of gametes from two salamander species (Plethodon shermani and Desmognathus ocoee) that are models of reproductive behavior. Long-read PacBio transcriptome sequencing of testis and ovary of both species revealed sex-specific expression of many genes common to vertebrate gametes, including a similar expression profile to the egg coat genes of Xenopus oocytes. In contrast to broad conservation of oocyte genes, major testis transcripts included paralogs of salamander-specific courtship pheromones (PRF, PMF, and SPF) that were confirmed as major sperm proteins by mass spectrometry proteomics. Sperm-specific paralogs of PMF and SPF are likely the most abundant secreted proteins in P. shermani and D. ocoee, respectively. In contrast, sperm PRF lacks a signal peptide and may be expressed in cytoplasm. PRF pheromone genes evolved independently multiple times by repeated gene duplication of sperm PRF genes with signal peptides recovered through recombination with PMF genes. Phylogenetic analysis of courtship pheromones and their sperm paralogs support that each protein family evolved for these two reproductive contexts at distinct evolutionary time points between 17 and 360 million years ago. Our combined phylogenetic, transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of plethodontid reproductive tissues support that the recurrent co-option and recombination of TFPs and cytokine-like proteins have been a novel driving force throughout salamander evolution and reproduction.

Pheromone Gene Diversification and the Evolution of Courtship Glands in Plethodontid Salamanders

Proteinaceous pheromones that diversify through gene duplication can result in shifts in courtship cocktails that may serve as a mechanism for reproductive isolation. The molecular evolution of pheromones has been extensively studied in salamanders, but how these genes and associated novel courtship glands have codiversified has not been evaluated. In this study we used transcriptional analyses to examine the relationship between pheromone diversification and gland type in three divergent lineages of plethodontid salamanders. Our results revealed that plethodontid salamanders express up to eight divergent Sodefrin Precursor-like Factor genes (spf, representing both alpha and beta subfamilies) along with Plethodontid Modulating Factor (pmf) and Plethodontid Receptivity Factor (prf). Expression of pheromone genes is tissue specific with pmf, prf, and some spf genes restricted to the mental gland. In contrast, the caudal gland shows strong expression of the other spf genes. We found evidence for punctuated changes in pheromone cocktail composition related to the loss of metamorphosis, and subsequent extreme reduction of the mental gland, in a paedomorphic lineage. Our study provides insight into how pheromone diversification can be partitioned into unique glands, which may lead to cocktail specificity in behavioral modules during courtship.

Pheromonal communication in urodelan amphibians

Pheromonal communication is an ancient and pervasive sensory modality in urodelan amphibians. One family of salamander pheromones (the sodefrin precursor-like factor (SPF) family) originated 300 million years ago, at the origin of amphibians. Although salamanders are often thought of as relatively simple animals especially when compared to mammals, the pheromonal systems are varied and complex with nuanced effects on behavior. Here, we review the function and evolution of pheromonal signals involved in male-female reproductive interactions. After describing common themes of salamander pheromonal communication, we describe what is known about the rich diversity of pheromonal communication in each salamander family. Several pheromones have been described, ranging from simple, invariant molecules to complex, variable blends of pheromones. While some pheromones elicit overt behavioral responses, others have more nuanced effects. Pheromonal signals have diversified within salamander lineages and have experienced rapid evolution. Once receptors have been matched to pheromonal ligands, rapid advance can be made to better understand the olfactory detection and processing of salamander pheromones. In particular, a large number of salamander species deliver pheromones across the skin of females, perhaps reflecting a novel mode of pheromonal communication. At the end of our review, we list some of the many intriguing unanswered questions. We hope that this review will inspire a new generation of scientists to pursue work in this rewarding field.