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Slyusarev GS, Skalon EK, Starunov VV. Evolution of Orthonectida body plan. Evol Dev 2024; 26:e12462. [PMID: 37889073 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Orthonectida is an enigmatic group of animals with still uncertain phylogenetic position. Orthonectids parasitize various marine invertebrates. Their life cycle comprises a parasitic plasmodium and free-living males and females. Sexual individuals develop inside the plasmodium; after egress from the host they copulate in the external environment, and the larva, which has developed inside the female infects a new host. In a series of studied orthonectid species simplification of free-living sexual individuals can be clearly traced. The number of longitudinal and transverse muscle fibers is gradually reduced. In the nervous system, simplification is even more pronounced. The number of neurons constituting the ganglion is dramatically reduced from 200 in Rhopalura ophiocomae to 4-6 in Intoshia variabili. The peripheral nervous system undergoes gradual simplification as well. The morphological simplification is accompanied with genome reduction. However, not only genes are lost from the genome, it also undergoes compactization ensured by extreme reduction of intergenic distances, short intron sizes, and elimination of repetitive elements. The main trend in orthonectid evolution is simplification and miniaturization of free-living sexual individuals coupled with reduction and compactization of the genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- George S Slyusarev
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, St-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Elizaveta K Skalon
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, St-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Victor V Starunov
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, St-Petersburg, Russia
- Zoological Institute RAS, St-Petersburg, Russia
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2
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Starunova ZI, Shunkina KV, Novikova EL, Starunov VV. Histamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid in the nervous system of Pygospio elegans (Annelida: Spionidae): structure and recovery during reparative regeneration. BMC ZOOL 2022; 7:58. [PMID: 37170300 PMCID: PMC10127018 DOI: 10.1186/s40850-022-00160-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
In recent two decades, studies of the annelid nervous systems were revolutionized by modern cell labeling techniques and state-of-the-art microscopy techniques. However, there are still huge gaps in our knowledge on the organization and functioning of their nervous system. Most of the recent studies have focused on the distribution of serotonin and FMRFamide, while the data about many other basic neurotransmitters such as histamine (HA) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are scarce.
Results
Using immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy we studied the distribution of histamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid in the nervous system of a spionid annelid Pygospio elegans and traced their redevelopment during reparative regeneration. Both neurotransmitters show specific patterns in central and peripheral nervous systems. HA-positive cells are concentrated mostly in the brain, while GABA-positive cell somata contribute equally to brain and segmental ganglia. Some immunoreactive elements were found in peripheral nerves. Both substances were revealed in high numbers in bipolar sensory cells in the palps. The first signs of regenerating HAergic and GABAergic systems were detected only by 3 days after the amputation. Further redevelopment of GABAergic system proceeds faster than that of HAergic one.
Conclusions
Comparisons with other annelids and mollusks examined in this respect revealed a number of general similarities in distribution patterns of HAergic and GABAergic cells in different species. Overall, the differences in the full redevelopment of various neurotransmitters correlate with neuronal development during embryogenesis. Our results highlight the importance of investigating the distribution of different neurotransmitters in comparative morphological and developmental studies.
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3
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Drábková M, Kocot KM, Halanych KM, Oakley TH, Moroz LL, Cannon JT, Kuris A, Garcia-Vedrenne AE, Pankey MS, Ellis EA, Varney R, Štefka J, Zrzavý J. Different phylogenomic methods support monophyly of enigmatic 'Mesozoa' (Dicyemida + Orthonectida, Lophotrochozoa). Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220683. [PMID: 35858055 PMCID: PMC9257288 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dicyemids and orthonectids were traditionally classified in a group called Mesozoa, but their placement in a single clade has been contested and their position(s) within Metazoa is uncertain. Here, we assembled a comprehensive matrix of Lophotrochozoa (Metazoa) and investigated the position of Dicyemida (= Rhombozoa) and Orthonectida, employing multiple phylogenomic approaches. We sequenced seven new transcriptomes and one draft genome from dicyemids (Dicyema, Dicyemennea) and two transcriptomes from orthonectids (Rhopalura). Using these and published data, we assembled and analysed contamination-filtered datasets with up to 987 genes. Our results recover Mesozoa monophyletic and as a close relative of Platyhelminthes or Gnathifera. Because of the tendency of the long-branch mesozoans to group with other long-branch taxa in our analyses, we explored the impact of approaches purported to help alleviate long-branch attraction (e.g. taxon removal, coalescent inference, gene targeting). None of these were able to break the association of Orthonectida with Dicyemida in the maximum-likelihood trees. Contrastingly, the Bayesian analysis and site-specific frequency model in maximum-likelihood did not recover a monophyletic Mesozoa (but only when using a specific 50 gene matrix). The classic hypothesis on monophyletic Mesozoa is possibly reborn and should be further tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Drábková
- Department of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 37005, Czech Republic,Laboratory of Molecular Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre CAS, České Budějovice 37005, Czech Republic
| | - Kevin M. Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Campus Box 870344, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Kenneth M. Halanych
- The Centre for Marine Science, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, 57000 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Todd H. Oakley
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Leonid L. Moroz
- Department of Neuroscience, and the Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Boulevard, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Johanna T. Cannon
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Armand Kuris
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Ana Elisa Garcia-Vedrenne
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - M. Sabrina Pankey
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Emily A. Ellis
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Rebecca Varney
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Campus Box 870344, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Jan Štefka
- Department of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 37005, Czech Republic,Laboratory of Molecular Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre CAS, České Budějovice 37005, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Zrzavý
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 37005, Czech Republic
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4
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Allentoft-Larsen MC, Gonzalez BC, Daniels J, Katija K, Osborn K, Worsaae K. Muscular adaptations in swimming scale worms (Polynoidae, Annelida). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210541. [PMID: 34659778 PMCID: PMC8511760 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Annelids are predominantly found along with the seafloor, but over time have colonized a vast diversity of habitats, such as the water column, where different modes of locomotion are necessary. Yet, little is known about their potential muscular adaptation to the continuous swimming behaviour required in the water column. The musculature and motility were examined for five scale worm species of Polynoidae (Aphroditiformia, Annelida) found in shallow waters, deep sea or caves and which exhibit crawling, occasional swimming or continuous swimming, respectively. Their parapodial musculature was reconstructed using microCT and computational three-dimensional analyses, and the muscular functions were interpreted from video recordings of their locomotion. Since most benthic scale worms are able to swim for short distances using body and parapodial muscle movements, suitable musculature for swimming is already present. Our results indicate that rather than rearrangements or addition of muscles, a shift to a pelagic lifestyle is mainly accompanied by structural loss of muscle bundles and density, as well as elongation of extrinsic dorsal and ventral parapodial muscles. Our study documents clear differences in locomotion and musculature among closely related annelids with different lifestyles as well as points to myoanatomical adaptations for accessing the water column.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc C. Allentoft-Larsen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100-DK, Denmark
| | - Brett C. Gonzalez
- Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
| | - Joost Daniels
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, 7700 Sandholdt Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA
| | - Kakani Katija
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, 7700 Sandholdt Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA
| | - Karen Osborn
- Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, 7700 Sandholdt Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, Copenhagen 2100-DK, Denmark
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Slyusarev GS, Bondarenko NI, Skalon EK, Rappoport AK, Radchenko D, Starunov VV. The structure of the muscular and nervous systems of the orthonectid Rhopalura litoralis (Orthonectida) or what parasitism can do to an annelid. ORG DIVERS EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-021-00519-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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6
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Rimskaya-Korsakova N, Karaseva N, Pimenov T, Rapp HT, Southward E, Temereva E, Worsaae K. Myogenesis of Siboglinum fiordicum sheds light on body regionalisation in beard worms (Siboglinidae, Annelida). Front Zool 2021; 18:44. [PMID: 34530856 PMCID: PMC8447566 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-021-00426-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many annelids, including well-studied species such as Platynereis, show similar structured segments along their body axis (homonomous segmentation). However, numerous annelid species diverge from this pattern and exhibit specialised segments or body regions (heteronomous segmentation). Recent phylogenomic studies and paleontological findings suggest that a heteronomous body architecture may represent an ancestral condition in Annelida. To better understand the segmentation within heteronomous species we describe the myogenesis and mesodermal delineation of segments in Siboglinum fiordicum during development. RESULTS Employing confocal and transmission electron microscopy we show that the somatic longitudinal musculature consists of four separate strands, among which ventrolateral one is the most prominent and is proposed to drive the search movements of the head of the late metatrochophore. The somatic circular musculature lies inside the longitudinal musculature and is predominantly developed at the anterior end of the competent larva to support the burrowing behaviour. Our application of transmission electron microscopy allows us to describe the developmental order of the non-muscular septa. The first septum to form is supported by thick bundles of longitudinal muscles and separates the body into an anterior and a posterior region. The second group of septa to develop further divides the posterior body region (opisthosoma) and is supported by developing circular muscles. At the late larval stage, a septum reinforced by circular muscles divides the anterior body region into a forepart and a trunk segment. The remaining septa and their circular muscles form one by one at the very posterior end of the opisthosoma. CONCLUSIONS The heteronomous Siboglinum lacks the strict anterior to posterior sequence of segment formation as it is found in the most studied annelid species. Instead, the first septum divides the body into two body regions before segments are laid down in first the posterior opisthosoma and then in the anterior body, respectively. Similar patterns of segment formation are described for the heteronomous chaetopterid Chaetopterus variopedatus and serpulid Hydroides elegans and may represent an adaptation of these annelids to the settlement and transition to the sedentarian-tubiculous mode of life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nadezda Karaseva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Timofei Pimenov
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Hans Tore Rapp
- Centre for Geobiology and Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Eve Southward
- Marine Biological Association of the U.K., Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, UK
| | - Elena Temereva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Faculty Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Gąsiorowski L, Børve A, Cherneva IA, Orús-Alcalde A, Hejnol A. Molecular and morphological analysis of the developing nemertean brain indicates convergent evolution of complex brains in Spiralia. BMC Biol 2021; 19:175. [PMID: 34452633 PMCID: PMC8400761 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01113-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The brain anatomy in the clade Spiralia can vary from simple, commissural brains (e.g., gastrotrichs, rotifers) to rather complex, partitioned structures (e.g., in cephalopods and annelids). How often and in which lineages complex brains evolved still remains unclear. Nemerteans are a clade of worm-like spiralians, which possess a complex central nervous system (CNS) with a prominent brain, and elaborated chemosensory and neuroglandular cerebral organs, which have been previously suggested as homologs to the annelid mushroom bodies. To understand the developmental and evolutionary origins of the complex brain in nemerteans and spiralians in general, we investigated details of the neuroanatomy and gene expression in the brain and cerebral organs of the juveniles of nemertean Lineus ruber. RESULTS In the juveniles, the CNS is already composed of all major elements present in the adults, including the brain, paired longitudinal lateral nerve cords, and an unpaired dorsal nerve cord, which suggests that further neural development is mostly related with increase in the size but not in complexity. The ultrastructure of the juvenile cerebral organ revealed that it is composed of several distinct cell types present also in the adults. The 12 transcription factors commonly used as brain cell type markers in bilaterians show region-specific expression in the nemertean brain and divide the entire organ into several molecularly distinct areas, partially overlapping with the morphological compartments. Additionally, several of the mushroom body-specific genes are expressed in the developing cerebral organs. CONCLUSIONS The dissimilar expression of molecular brain markers between L. ruber and the annelid Platynereis dumerilii indicates that the complex brains present in those two species evolved convergently by independent expansions of non-homologous regions of a simpler brain present in their last common ancestor. Although the same genes are expressed in mushroom bodies and cerebral organs, their spatial expression within organs shows apparent differences between annelids and nemerteans, indicating convergent recruitment of the same genes into patterning of non-homologous organs or hint toward a more complicated evolutionary process, in which conserved and novel cell types contribute to the non-homologous structures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aina Børve
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Irina A Cherneva
- Biological Faculty, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Andreas Hejnol
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
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Abstract
Members of the following marine annelid families are found almost exclusively in the interstitial environment and are highly adapted to move between sand grains, relying mostly on ciliary locomotion: Apharyngtidae n. fam., Dinophilidae, Diurodrilidae, Nerillidae, Lobatocerebridae, Parergodrilidae, Polygordiidae, Protodrilidae, Protodriloididae, Psammodrilidae and Saccocirridae. This article provides a review of the evolution, systematics, and diversity of these families, with the exception of Parergodrilidae, which was detailed in the review of Orbiniida by Meca, Zhadan, and Struck within this Special Issue. While several of the discussed families have previously only been known by a few described species, recent surveys inclusive of molecular approaches have increased the number of species, showing that all of the aforementioned families exhibit a high degree of cryptic diversity shadowed by a limited number of recognizable morphological traits. This is a challenge for studies of the evolution, taxonomy, and diversity of interstitial families as well as for their identification and incorporation into ecological surveys. By compiling a comprehensive and updated review on these interstitial families, we hope to promote new studies on their intriguing evolutionary histories, adapted life forms and high and hidden diversity.
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Herranz M, Sørensen MV, Park T, Leander BS, Worsaae K. Insights into mud dragon morphology (Kinorhyncha, Allomalorhagida): myoanatomy and neuroanatomy of Dracoderes abei and Pycnophyes ilyocryptus. ORG DIVERS EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-020-00447-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Sigvardt ZMS, Worsaae K, Savatenalinton S, Kerbl A, Olesen J. Transitions in functional morphology from "large branchiopods" to Cladocera: Video and confocal microscopic studies of Cyclestheria hislopi (Cyclestherida) and Sida crystallina (Cladocera: Ctenopoda). J Morphol 2020; 281:1241-1259. [PMID: 32815589 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Great diversity is found in morphology and functionality of arthropod appendages, both along the body axis of individual animals and between different life-cycle stages. Despite many branchiopod crustaceans being well known for displaying a relatively simple arrangement of many serially post-maxillary appendages (trunk limbs), this taxon also shows an often unappreciated large variation in appendage morphology. Diplostracan branchiopods exhibit generally a division of labor into locomotory antennae and feeding/filtratory post-maxillary appendages (trunk limbs). We here study the functionality and morphology of the swimming antennae and feeding appendages in clam shrimps and cladocerans and analyze the findings in an evolutionary context (e.g., possible progenetic origin of Cladocera). We focus on Cyclestheria hislopi (Cyclestherida), sister species to Cladocera and exhibiting many "large" branchiopod characters (e.g., many serially similar appendages), and Sida crystallina (Cladocera, Ctenopoda), which likely exhibits plesiomorphic cladoceran traits (e.g., six pairs of serially similar appendages). We combine (semi-)high-speed recordings of behavior with confocal laser scanning microscopy analyses of musculature to infer functionality and homologies of locomotory and filtratory appendages in the two groups. Our morphological study shows that the musculature in all trunk limbs (irrespective of limb size) of both C. hislopi and S. crystallina comprises overall similar muscle groups in largely corresponding arrangements. Some differences between C. hislopi and S. crystallina, such as fewer trunk limbs and antennal segments in the latter, may reflect a progenetic origin of Cladocera. Other differences seem related to the appearance of a specialized type of swimming and feeding in Cladocera, where the anterior locomotory system (antennae) and the posterior feeding system (trunk limbs) have become fully separated functionally from each other. This separation is likely one explanation for the omnipresence of cladocerans, which have conquered both freshwater and marine free water masses and a number of other habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zandra M S Sigvardt
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Alexandra Kerbl
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jørgen Olesen
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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11
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Curini-Galletti M, Artois T, Di Domenico M, Fontaneto D, Jondelius U, Jörger KM, Leasi F, Martínez A, Norenburg JL, Sterrer W, Todaro MA. Contribution of soft-bodied meiofaunal taxa to Italian marine biodiversity. THE EUROPEAN ZOOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2020.1786607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M. Curini-Galletti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - T. Artois
- Research Group Zoology: Biodiversity & Toxicology, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - M. Di Domenico
- Center for Marine Studies, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - D. Fontaneto
- Molecular Ecology Group, Water Research Institute - CNR, Verbania, Italy
| | - U. Jondelius
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - K. M. Jörger
- SNSB-Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Munich, Germany
| | - F. Leasi
- Department of Biology, Geology and Environmental Science, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN, USA
| | - A. Martínez
- Molecular Ecology Group, Water Research Institute - CNR, Verbania, Italy
| | - J. L. Norenburg
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (USA), Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - M. A. Todaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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12
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Schmidbaur H, Schwaha T, Franzkoch R, Purschke G, Steiner G. Within-family plasticity of nervous system architecture in Syllidae (Annelida, Errantia). Front Zool 2020; 17:20. [PMID: 32582362 PMCID: PMC7310387 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-020-00359-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ground pattern underlying the nervous system of the last common ancestor in annelids was long thought to be settled, consisting of a dorsal brain, circumoesophageal connectives and a subepithelial, ladder-like ventral nerve cord with segmental ganglia connected by paired connectives. With the advent of immunocytochemical stainings and confocal laser scanning microscopy, it becomes evident that its architecture is extremely diverse, which makes the reconstruction of a ground pattern in annelida challenging. Whereas the nervous systems of many different families has already been described, only very few studies looked at the diversity of nervous systems within such clades to give a closer estimate on how plastic the annelid nervous system really is. So far, little is known on syllid nervous system architecture, one of the largest and most diverse groups of marine annelids. RESULTS The position of the brain, the circumoesophageal connectives, the stomatogastric nervous system, the longitudinal nerves that traverse each segment and the innervation of appendages are relatively uniform within the clade. Both the number of connectives within the ventral nerve cord and the number of segmental nerves, which in earlier studies were used to infer phylogenetic relationships and to reconstruct an annelid ground pattern, are highly diverse and differ between genera or even within a given genus. Differences in the distribution of somata of the brain, the nuchal innervation and its associated cell bodies were found between Syllinae and Exogoninae and may be subfamily-specific. CONCLUSIONS The nervous system morphology of syllids very likely depends on the taxon-specific ecological requirements. Thus, it is not surprising that in a clade, which occupies such diverse niches as the Annelida, we find similar patterns in phylogenetically widely separated species in similar niches and a high degree of modularity within a family. Only standardized protocols and staining methods can lead to comparable results, but so far different approaches have been taken to describe annelid nervous systems, making homologization of certain structures difficult. This study provides the first thorough description of the nervous system in the family Syllidae, allowing more detailed comparisons between annelid families in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Schmidbaur
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Present address: Department of Molecular Evolution and Development, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Schwaha
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rico Franzkoch
- Zoology and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 11, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
- Present address: Microbiology, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 11, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Günter Purschke
- Zoology and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 11, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Gerhard Steiner
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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13
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Worsaae K, Kerbl A, Vang Á, Gonzalez BC. Broad North Atlantic distribution of a meiobenthic annelid - against all odds. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15497. [PMID: 31664164 PMCID: PMC6820731 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51765-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA barcoding and population genetic studies have revealed an unforeseen hidden diversity of cryptic species among microscopic marine benthos, otherwise exhibiting highly similar and simple morphologies. This has led to a paradigm shift, rejecting cosmopolitism of marine meiofauna until genetically proven and challenging the "Everything is Everywhere, but the environment selects" hypothesis that claims ubiquitous distribution of microscopic organisms. With phylogenetic and species delimitation analyses of worldwide genetic samples of the meiofaunal family Dinophilidae (Annelida) we here resolve three genera within the family and showcase an exceptionally broad, boreal, North Atlantic distribution of a single microscopic marine species with no obvious means of dispersal besides vicariance. With its endobenthic lifestyle, small size, limited migratory powers and lack of pelagic larvae, the broad distribution of Dinophilus vorticoides seems to constitute a "meiofaunal paradox". This species feasts in the biofilm among sand grains, but also on macroalgae and ice within which it can likely survive long-distance rafting dispersal due to its varying lifecycle stages; eggs encapsulated in cocoons and dormant encystment stages. Though often neglected and possibly underestimated among marine microscopic species, dormancy may be a highly significant factor for explaining wide distribution patterns and a key to solving this meiofaunal paradox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Worsaae
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Biology, Marine Biological Section, Universitetsparken 4, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
| | - Alexandra Kerbl
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Biology, Marine Biological Section, Universitetsparken 4, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Áki Vang
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Biology, Marine Biological Section, Universitetsparken 4, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Brett C Gonzalez
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Biology, Marine Biological Section, Universitetsparken 4, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
- Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Invertebrate Zoology, MRC-163, P.O. BOX 37012, Washington, D.C., 20013, USA.
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14
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Starunov VV. The organization of musculature and the nervous system in the pygidial region of phyllodocid annelids. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-018-00430-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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15
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Worsaae K, Frykman T, Nielsen C. The neuromuscular system of the cyclostome bryozoan
Crisia eburnea
(Linnaeus, 1758). ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Tobias Frykman
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Claus Nielsen
- BioSystematics, The Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
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16
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Slyusarev GS, Nesterenko MA, Starunov VV. The structure of the muscular and nervous systems of the maleIntoshialinei(Orthonectida). ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- George S. Slyusarev
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State University Saint Petersburg Russia
| | - Maksim A. Nesterenko
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State University Saint Petersburg Russia
| | - Viktor V. Starunov
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Faculty of BiologySaint Petersburg State University Saint Petersburg Russia
- Zoological institute RAS Saint Petersburg Russia
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17
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Helm C, Beckers P, Bartolomaeus T, Drukewitz SH, Kourtesis I, Weigert A, Purschke G, Worsaae K, Struck TH, Bleidorn C. Convergent evolution of the ladder-like ventral nerve cord in Annelida. Front Zool 2018; 15:36. [PMID: 30275868 PMCID: PMC6161469 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-018-0280-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A median, segmented, annelid nerve cord has repeatedly been compared to the arthropod and vertebrate nerve cords and became the most used textbook representation of the annelid nervous system. Recent phylogenomic analyses, however, challenge the hypothesis that a subepidermal rope-ladder-like ventral nerve cord (VNC) composed of a paired serial chain of ganglia and somata-free connectives represents either a plesiomorphic or a typical condition in annelids. RESULTS Using a comparative approach by combining phylogenomic analyses with morphological methods (immunohistochemistry and CLSM, histology and TEM), we compiled a comprehensive dataset to reconstruct the evolution of the annelid VNC. Our phylogenomic analyses generally support previous topologies. However, the so far hard-to-place Apistobranchidae and Psammodrilidae are now incorporated among the basally branching annelids with high support. Based on this topology we reconstruct an intraepidermal VNC as the ancestral state in Annelida. Thus, a subepidermal ladder-like nerve cord clearly represents a derived condition. CONCLUSIONS Based on the presented data, a ladder-like appearance of the ventral nerve cord evolved repeatedly, and independently of the transition from an intraepidermal to a subepidermal cord during annelid evolution. Our investigations thereby propose an alternative set of neuroanatomical characteristics for the last common ancestor of Annelida or perhaps even Spiralia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad Helm
- Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Patrick Beckers
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Bartolomaeus
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Ioannis Kourtesis
- Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anne Weigert
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Günter Purschke
- Department of Developmental Biology and Zoology, University of Osnabrück, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Torsten H. Struck
- Frontiers in Evolutionary Zoology, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172, Blindern, NO-0318 Oslo, Norway
| | - Christoph Bleidorn
- Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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18
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Worsaae K, Giribet G, Martínez A. The role of progenesis in the diversification of the interstitial annelid lineage Psammodrilidae. INVERTEBR SYST 2018. [DOI: 10.1071/is17063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Psammodrilidae constitutes a family of understudied, nearly completely ciliated, small-sized annelids, whose systematic position in Annelida remains unsettled and whose internal phylogeny is here investigated for the first time. Psammodrilids possess hooked chaetae typical of macroscopic tube-dwelling semi-sessile annelids, such as Arenicolidae. Yet, several minute members resemble, with their conspicuous gliding by ciliary motion and vagile lifestyle, interstitial fauna, adapted to move between sand grains. Moreover, psammodrilids exhibit a range of unique features, for example, bendable aciculae, a collar region with polygonal unciliated cells, and a muscular pumping pharynx. We here present a combined phylogeny of Psammodrilidae including molecular and morphological data of all eight described species (two described herein as Psammodrilus didomenicoi, sp. nov. and P. norenburgi, sp. nov.) as well as four undescribed species. Ancestral character state reconstruction suggests the ancestor of Psammodrilidae was a semi-sessile larger form. Miniaturisation seems to have occurred multiple times independently within Psammodrilidae, possibly through progenesis, yielding small species with resemblance to a juvenile stage of the larger species. We find several new cryptic species and generally reveal an unexpected diversity and distribution of this small family. This success may be favoured by their adaptive morphology, here indicated to be genetically susceptible to progenesis.
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19
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Kerbl A, Conzelmann M, Jékely G, Worsaae K. High diversity in neuropeptide immunoreactivity patterns among three closely related species of Dinophilidae (Annelida). J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:3596-3635. [PMID: 28744909 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides are conserved metazoan signaling molecules, and represent useful markers for comparative investigations on the morphology and function of the nervous system. However, little is known about the variation of neuropeptide expression patterns across closely related species in invertebrate groups other than insects. In this study, we compare the immunoreactivity patterns of 14 neuropeptides in three closely related microscopic dinophilid annelids (Dinophilus gyrociliatus, D. taeniatus and Trilobodrilus axi). The brains of all three species were found to consist of around 700 somata, surrounding a central neuropil with 3-5 ventral and 2-5 dorsal commissures. Neuropeptide immunoreactivity was detected in the brain, the ventral cords, stomatogastric nervous system, and additional nerves. Different neuropeptides are expressed in specific, non-overlapping cells in the brain in all three species. FMRFamide, MLD/pedal peptide, allatotropin, RNamide, excitatory peptide, and FVRIamide showed a broad localization within the brain, while calcitonin, SIFamide, vasotocin, RGWamide, DLamide, FLamide, FVamide, MIP, and serotonin were present in fewer cells in demarcated regions. The different markers did not reveal ganglionic subdivisions or physical compartmentalization in any of these microscopic brains. The non-overlapping expression of different neuropeptides may indicate that the regionalization in these uniform, small brains is realized by individual cells, rather than cell clusters, representing an alternative to the lobular organization observed in several macroscopic annelids. Furthermore, despite the similar gross brain morphology, we found an unexpectedly high variation in the expression patterns of neuropeptides across species. This suggests that neuropeptide expression evolves faster than morphology, representing a possible mechanism for the evolutionary divergence of behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kerbl
- Marine Biological Section - Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Gáspár Jékely
- Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section - Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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21
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Gonzalez BC, Martínez A, Borda E, Iliffe TM, Eibye-Jacobsen D, Worsaae K. Phylogeny and systematics of Aphroditiformia. Cladistics 2017; 34:225-259. [DOI: 10.1111/cla.12202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Brett C. Gonzalez
- Marine Biological Section; Department of Biology; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4, 1st floor 2100 Copenhagen Ø Denmark
| | - Alejandro Martínez
- Marine Biological Section; Department of Biology; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4, 1st floor 2100 Copenhagen Ø Denmark
- Institute for Ecosystems Study; Italian National Research Council; Largo Tonolli 5 28922 Verbania Italy
| | - Elizabeth Borda
- Marine Biology Department; Texas A&M University at Galveston; 1001 Texas Clipper Road Galveston TX 77553 USA
| | - Thomas M. Iliffe
- Marine Biology Department; Texas A&M University at Galveston; 1001 Texas Clipper Road Galveston TX 77553 USA
| | - Danny Eibye-Jacobsen
- Natural History Museum of Denmark; Zoological Museum; Universitetsparken 15 2100 Copenhagen Ø Denmark
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section; Department of Biology; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4, 1st floor 2100 Copenhagen Ø Denmark
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22
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Gonzalez BC, Petersen HCB, Di Domenico M, Martínez A, Armenteros M, García‐Machado E, Møller PR, Worsaae K. Phylogeny and biogeography of the scaleless scale worm Pisione (Sigalionidae, Annelida). Ecol Evol 2017; 7:2894-2915. [PMID: 28479990 PMCID: PMC5415509 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 01/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pisione is a scaleless group of small scale worms inhabiting sandy bottoms in shallow marine waters. This group was once considered rare, but now 45 described species can be characterized, among others, by their paired, segmental copulatory organs (one to multiple external pairs), which display a complexity of various accessory structures. The evolutionary significance of these unique organs was suggested in the late 1960s, but has been heavily debated since the late 1990s and remains controversial. In the present paper, we study the internal relationships within Pisione, employing combined phylogenetic analyses of both molecular and morphological data from 16 terminals of Pisione, as well as two terminals of Pisionidens, and eight additional scale worms as outgroups. Our taxon sampling covers all geographical areas where the genus has been reported, as well as most of their morphological and copulatory variability, including representatives of the "africana," "remota," "crassa," and "papuensis" groups, established previously by Yamanishi. We hereby provide a first insight into the relationships of the genus, testing previously proposed hypotheses on the evolutionary significance of male copulatory structures within Pisione, while attempting to understand patterns of distribution. The phylogenetic analyses using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods consistently recovered two large clades spanning the East Atlantic (including the Mediterranean) and the Indo-Pacific-West Atlantic, respectively. Character optimization on our trees revealed a high degree of homoplasy in both non-reproductive and sexual characters of Pisione, with buccal acicula found to be the sole apomorphy among the morphological features assessed herein, with none defining the biogeographical subclades within. Overall, our comparative analyses highlight the high degree of morphological variation in this widely distributed genus, rejecting previous assertions of an increasing number and complexity of copulatory structures across the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett C. Gonzalez
- Marine Biological SectionDepartment of BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen ØDenmark
| | | | | | - Alejandro Martínez
- Marine Biological SectionDepartment of BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen ØDenmark
- Molecular Ecology Group – Italian National Research CouncilInstitute for Ecosystem Study CNR‐ISEVerbania PallanzaItaly
| | | | | | - Peter Rask Møller
- Evolutionary Genomics SectionNatural History Museum of DenmarkCopenhagen ØDenmark
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological SectionDepartment of BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen ØDenmark
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Morphology and evolution of the nervous system in Gnathostomulida (Gnathifera, Spiralia). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-017-0324-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Kerbl A, Martín-Durán JM, Worsaae K, Hejnol A. Molecular regionalization in the compact brain of the meiofaunal annelid Dinophilus gyrociliatus (Dinophilidae). EvoDevo 2016; 7:20. [PMID: 27583125 PMCID: PMC5006589 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-016-0058-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Annelida is a morphologically diverse animal group that exhibits a remarkable variety in nervous system architecture (e.g., number and location of longitudinal cords, architecture of the brain). Despite this heterogeneity of neural arrangements, the molecular profiles related to central nervous system patterning seem to be conserved even between distantly related annelids. In particular, comparative molecular studies on brain and anterior neural region patterning genes have focused so far mainly on indirect-developing macrofaunal taxa. Therefore, analyses on microscopic, direct-developing annelids are important to attain a general picture of the evolutionary events underlying the vast diversity of annelid neuroanatomy. RESULTS We have analyzed the expression domains of 11 evolutionarily conserved genes involved in brain and anterior neural patterning in adult females of the direct-developing meiofaunal annelid Dinophilus gyrociliatus. The small, compact brain shows expression of dimmed, foxg, goosecoid, homeobrain, nk2.1, orthodenticle, orthopedia, pax6, six3/6 and synaptotagmin-1. Although most of the studied markers localize to specific brain areas, the genes six3/6 and synaptotagmin-1 are expressed in nearly all perikarya of the brain. All genes except for goosecoid, pax6 and nk2.2 overlap in the anterior brain region, while the respective expression domains are more separated in the posterior brain. CONCLUSIONS Our findings reveal that the expression patterns of the genes foxg, orthodenticle, orthopedia and six3/6 correlate with those described in Platynereis dumerilii larvae, and homeobrain, nk2.1, orthodenticle and synaptotagmin-1 resemble the pattern of late larvae of Capitella teleta. Although data on other annelids are limited, molecular similarities between adult Dinophilus and larval Platynereis and Capitella suggest an overall conservation of molecular mechanisms patterning the anterior neural regions, independent from developmental and ecological strategies, or of the size and configuration of the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kerbl
- Marine Biology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - José M Martín-Durán
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate, 55, 5006 Bergen, Norway
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Andreas Hejnol
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate, 55, 5006 Bergen, Norway
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Martínez A, Kvindebjerg K, Iliffe TM, Worsaae K. Evolution of cave suspension feeding in Protodrilidae (Annelida). ZOOL SCR 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/zsc.12198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Martínez
- Marine Biological Section; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4 DK-2100 Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Kirsten Kvindebjerg
- Marine Biological Section; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4 DK-2100 Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Thomas M. Iliffe
- Department of Marine Biology; Texas A&M University at Galveston; Galveston TX 77553-1675 USA
| | - Katrine Worsaae
- Marine Biological Section; University of Copenhagen; Universitetsparken 4 DK-2100 Copenhagen Denmark
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