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Yang J, Wang H, Chen H, Hou H, Hu Q. The association of genetic polymorphisms within the dopaminergic system with nicotine dependence: A narrative review. Heliyon 2024; 10:e33158. [PMID: 39021905 PMCID: PMC11253068 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Nicotine, the main compound in cigarettes, leads to smoking addiction. Nicotine acts on the limbic dopamine reward loop in the midbrain by binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, promoting the release of dopamine, and resulting in a rewarding effect or satisfaction. This satisfaction is essential for continued and compulsive tobacco use, and therefore dopamine plays a crucial role in nicotine dependence. Numerous studies have identified genetic polymorphisms of dopaminergic pathways which may influence susceptibility to nicotine addiction. Dopamine levels are greatly influenced by synthesis, storage, release, degradation, and reuptake-related genes, including genes encoding tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine decarboxylase, dopamine transporter, dopamine receptor, dopamine 3-hydroxylase, catechol-O-methyltransferase, and monoamine oxidase. In this paper, we review research progress on the effects of polymorphisms in the above genes on downstream smoking behavior and nicotine dependence, to offer a theoretical basis for the elucidation of the genetic mechanism underlying nicotine dependence and future personalized treatment for smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Yang
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing, 102209, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects and Biosynthesis, Beijing, 102209, China
| | - Hongjuan Wang
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing, 102209, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects and Biosynthesis, Beijing, 102209, China
| | - Huan Chen
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing, 102209, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects and Biosynthesis, Beijing, 102209, China
| | - Hongwei Hou
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing, 102209, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects and Biosynthesis, Beijing, 102209, China
| | - Qingyuan Hu
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing, 102209, China
- Key Laboratory of Tobacco Biological Effects and Biosynthesis, Beijing, 102209, China
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Sharvin BL, Aburto MR, Cryan JF. Decoding the neurocircuitry of gut feelings: Region-specific microbiome-mediated brain alterations. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 179:106033. [PMID: 36758820 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Research in the last decade has unveiled a crucial role for the trillions of microorganisms that reside in the gut in influencing host neurodevelopment across the lifespan via the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Studies have linked alterations in the composition, complexity, and diversity of the gut microbiota to changes in behaviour including abnormal social interactions, cognitive deficits, and anxiety- and depressive-like phenotypes. Moreover, the microbiota has been linked with neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders. Interestingly, there appears to be specific brain regions governing the neurocircuitry driving higher cognitive function that are susceptible to influence from manipulations to the host microbiome. This review will aim to elucidate the region-specific effects mediated by the gut microbiota, with a focus on translational animal models and some existing human neuroimaging data. Compelling preclinical evidence suggests disruption to normal microbiota-gut-brain signalling can have detrimental effects on the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and striatum. Furthermore, human neuroimaging studies have unveiled a role for the microbiota in mediating functional connectivity and structure of specific brain regions that can be traced back to neurocognition and behavioural output. Understanding these microbiota-mediated changes will aid in identifying unique therapeutic targets for treating neurological disorders associated with these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan L Sharvin
- APC Microbiome, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Maria Rodriguez Aburto
- APC Microbiome, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John F Cryan
- APC Microbiome, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Halit C, Elif YN, Hasan MA, Sacide P, Yasemin O, Deniz D, Mehmet AU. Methylation of APC2, NR3C1, and DRD2 gene promoters in turkish patients with tobacco use disorder. Niger J Clin Pract 2022; 25:160-166. [PMID: 35170441 DOI: 10.4103/njcp.njcp_25_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Background Many studies have investigated the association of the methylation of gene and tobacco use disorders (TUD), but results remain ambiguous. Aims This study evaluated the relationship between methylation of Adenomatosis Polyposis Coli (APC), Nuclear Receptor subfamily 3 group C member 1 (NR3C1), Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene promoters, and its effect on TUD. Subjects and Methods We recruited 154 active smokers and 111 healthy non-smoker controls. PCR based methods on genomic DNA characterized the methylation of APC2, NR3C1, and DRD2 gene promoters. Results We have found a significant difference in methylation of APC2 for TUD compared to healthy controls (P < 0.001). The partial methylation ratio was about an eight-fold increase in smokers compared to healthy controls. NR3C1 methylation was slightly higher in TUD patients compared to the control group, but the difference was not significant between the two groups (%95.33 vs. 91.08, P = 0.269). DRD2 methylation ratio was not significant between TUD patients and healthy control groups (P = 0.894). Conclusion We think that it is important to detect APC2 methylated cases earlier and to advise them to quit smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinarka Halit
- Department of Chest Disease, University of Health Sciences, Yedikule Training and Research Hospital of Chest Diseases and Thoracic Surgery, Istanbul
| | - Y Niksarlıoğlu Elif
- Department of Chest Disease, University of Health Sciences, Yedikule Training and Research Hospital of Chest Diseases and Thoracic Surgery, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M Aytaç Hasan
- Department of Psychiatry, Malazgirt State Hospital, Mus, Turkey
| | - Pehlivan Sacide
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Oyaci Yasemin
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Dogan Deniz
- Department of Chest Disease, University of Health Sciences, Gülhane Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - A Uysal Mehmet
- Department of Chest Disease, University of Health Sciences, Yedikule Training and Research Hospital of Chest Diseases and Thoracic Surgery, Istanbul, Turkey
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Jones SK, Wolf BJ, Froeliger B, Wallace K, Carpenter MJ, Alberg AJ. Nicotine metabolism predicted by CYP2A6 genotypes in relation to smoking cessation: A systematic review. Nicotine Tob Res 2021; 24:633-642. [PMID: 34478556 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntab175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Identifying genetic factors associated with smoking cessation could inform precision cessation interventions. Of major interest is genetic variation in nicotine metabolism, largely predicted by CYP2A6 variations. METHODS We conducted a systematic literature review to summarize the population-based evidence of the association between CYP2A6 and smoking cessation.In the 12 studies meeting the inclusion criteria, the known functional metabolic effect of CYP2A6 variants was used to classify nicotine metabolism as normal (>75% metabolic activity), intermediate (50.1 - 75% activity), slow (25 - 50% activity), and poor (<25% activity). Summary odds ratios of smoking cessation were calculated across metabolic groups, stratified by ancestry and whether participants received pharmacotherapy or placebo/no treatment. RESULTS Among untreated people of European ancestry (n = 4 studies), those with CYP2A6 reduced metabolism were more likely to quit smoking than those with normal metabolism [Summary OR = 2.05, 95% CI 1.23 - 3.42] and the likelihood of cessation increased as nicotine metabolism decreased. Nicotine replacement therapy attenuated the association at end-of-treatment, while bupropion modified the association such that intermediate/slow metabolizers were less likely to quit than normal metabolizers [Summary OR = 0.86, 95% CI 0.79 - 0.94]. Among untreated Asian people (n = 3 studies), results differed compared to those with European ancestry: those with slow metabolism were less likely to have quit smoking than normal metabolizers [Summary OR = 0.52, 95% CI 0.38 - 0.71]. Evidence for people of African ancestry (n = 1 study) suggested the CYP2A6 association with cessation may differ compared to those of European ancestry. IMPLICATIONS Most studies included in this review were of European ancestry populations; these showed slower nicotine metabolism was associated with increased likelihood of smoking cessation in a dose-related manner. Pharmacotherapy appeared to attenuate or modify this association among people of European ancestry, but it is unclear whether the change in the association remains consistent after treatment ceases. This finding has implications for precision medicine cessation interventions. Based on only a few studies of people of Asian or African ancestry, the association between CYP2A6 variants and cessation may differ from that observed among those of European ancestry, but more evidence is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie K Jones
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC
| | - Bethany J Wolf
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC
| | - Brett Froeliger
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia MO
| | - Kristin Wallace
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC.,Hollings Cancer Center, 86 Jonathan Lucas Street, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC
| | - Matthew J Carpenter
- Hollings Cancer Center, 86 Jonathan Lucas Street, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC
| | - Anthony J Alberg
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia SC
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Blum K, Modestino EJ, Gondré-Lewis MC, Neary J, Siwicki D, Hauser M, Barh D, Steinberg B, Badgaiyan RD. GLOBAL OPIOID EPIDEMIC: DOOMED TO FAIL WITHOUT GENETICALLY BASED PRECISION ADDICTION MEDICINE (PAM ™): LESSONS LEARNED FROM AMERICA. PRECISION MEDICINE 2017; 2:17-22. [PMID: 29372187 PMCID: PMC5778881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
It is a reality that globally opioid deaths have soared for men and women of all social, economic status and age from heroin and fentanyl overdoses. Specifically, in the United States, deaths from narcotic overdoses have reached alarming metrics since 2010. In fact, the Fentanyl rise is driven by drug dealers who sell it as heroin or who use it to lace cocaine or to make illegal counterfeit prescription opioids. The President's Commission on the crisis has linked the death toll as equivalent to "September 11th every three weeks." In fact, The U.S. Centre for Disease Control (CDC) released data showing that opioid-related overdoses were up 15% in the first three quarters of 2016 compared to 2015. Various governmental organizations including NIDA, are actively seeking solutions. However, we argue that unless the scientific community embraces genetic addiction risk coupled with potential precision or personalized medicine to induce "dopamine homeostasis" it will fail. We now have evidence that a ten-gene and eleven single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel predicts Addiction Severity Index (ASI) for both alcohol and drugs of abuse (e.g., Opioids). In a large multi-addiction centre study involving seven diverse treatment programs, the genetic addiction risk score (GARS™) was shown to have a predictive relationship with ASI-MV derived alcohol (≥ seven alleles), and other drugs (≥ 4 alleles) severity risk scores. In a number of neuroimaging studies, we also display that in both animal (bench) and abstinent Chinese severe heroin-dependent patients (bedside), BOLD dopamine activation across the brain reward circuitry revealed increases in resting state functional connectivity as well volume connectivity. It is also known that published nutrigenomic (coupling gene polymorphisms with altered KB220z) studies reveal improved clinical outcomes related to obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Blum
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida & McKnight Brain
Institute, College of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Human Integrated Services Unit University
of Vermont Center for Clinical & Translational Science, College of Medicine,
Burlington, VT, USA
- Department of Clinical Neurology, Path Research Foundation, NY, NY,
USA
- Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Wright State University, Boonshoft School
of Medicine, Dayton, OH USA
- Division of Genetic Testing, Geneus Health LLC, San Antonio, Texas,
USA
- Center for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of
Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur, West
Bengal, India
- Institute of Psychology, Eötvös Loránd
University Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Southern California, Keck
School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Neuroscience Based Addiction Research and Therapy, The
Shores Treatment & Recovery Center, Port t. Lucie, Fl. USA
| | | | - Marjorie C. Gondré-Lewis
- Departments of Anatomy, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences,
Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jennifer Neary
- Division of Genetic Testing, Geneus Health LLC, San Antonio, Texas,
USA
| | - David Siwicki
- Division of Genetic Testing, Geneus Health LLC, San Antonio, Texas,
USA
| | - Mary Hauser
- Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
| | - Debmalya Barh
- Center for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of
Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur, West
Bengal, India
| | | | - Rajendra D. Badgaiyan
- Department of Psychiatry, Richmond University Hospital, Icahn
School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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Ou WC, Huang YC, Huang CL, Lin MH, Chen YC, Chen YJ, Liu CN, Chen MC, Huang CS, Chen PL. Interaction between cytochrome P450 2A6 and Catechol-O-Methyltransferase genes and their association with smoking risk in young men. Behav Brain Funct 2017; 13:8. [PMID: 28472995 PMCID: PMC5418756 DOI: 10.1186/s12993-017-0127-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although some effects of gene-gene interactions on nicotine-dopamine metabolism for smoking behavior have been reported, polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2A6 and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) have not been studied together to determine their effects on smokers. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the interaction between the CYP 2A6 and COMT genes on smoking behavior in young Taiwanese men. RESULTS A self-report questionnaire regarding smoking status was administered to 500 young men. Polymorphisms of the CYP 2A6 and COMT genes as well as urinary nicotine and urinary cotinine levels were determined. The odds ratio for starting smoking was significantly lower in subjects carrying a CYP2A6 low activity/variant COMT rs4680 genotype than in those possessing a CYP2A6 wild-type/variant COMT rs4680 genotype (0.44, 95% confidence interval = 0.19-0.98, P = 0.043). Comparisons of Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), Physiological Cigarette Dependence Scale (PCDS), and Cigarette Withdrawal symptoms (CWS-21) among the smokers with different CYP2A6/COMT polymorphisms were not significantly different. The adjusted urinary nicotine concentrations were not significantly different between the two groups carrying different genotypes. The adjusted urinary cotinine level was significantly different between the COMT rs4680 wild-type group and COMT rs4680 variant group [92.46 ng/μL vs. 118.24 ng/μL (median value), P = 0.041] and between the COMT rs4680 wild-type/COMT rs165599 variant group and COMT rs4680 variant/COMT rs165599 variant group (97.10 ng/μL vs. 122.18 ng/μL, P = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that a single nucleotide polymorphism (rs4680) of the COMT gene and the interaction between the CYP 2A6 and COMT genes affect smoking status in young Taiwanese men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Chih Ou
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 666 Buzih Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, 40601, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chin Huang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Jen-Ai Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ling Huang
- Department of Nursing, Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Min-Hsuan Lin
- Administration Center for Research and Education, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chun Chen
- Administration Center for Research and Education, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ju Chen
- Company Limited of Ditech Enterprise, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Nu Liu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 666 Buzih Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, 40601, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chih Chen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 666 Buzih Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, 40601, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Shan Huang
- Administration Center for Research and Education, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.
| | - Pei-Lain Chen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 666 Buzih Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, 40601, Taiwan.
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Ma Y, Wang M, Yuan W, Su K, Li MD. The significant association of Taq1A genotypes in DRD2/ANKK1 with smoking cessation in a large-scale meta-analysis of Caucasian populations. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e686. [PMID: 26624925 PMCID: PMC5068580 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a number of studies have analyzed the relation between the DRD2/ANKK1 gene Taq1A polymorphism and smoking cessation, the results remain controversial. The primary objective of the present study was to determine whether this variant indeed has any effect on smoking cessation. The A1-dominant model that considers A1/* (*=A1 or A2) and A2/A2 as two genotypes and compares their frequencies in current and former smokers was applied. A total of 22 studies with 11,075 subjects were included in the meta-analyses. Considering the potential influence of between-study heterogeneity, we conducted stratified meta-analyses with the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis statistical software (version 2.0). Results based on either cross-sectional or longitudinal studies consistently showed a statistically significant association between Taq1A A1/* genotypes and smoking cessation. Further, a more significant association of the variant with smoking cessation was detected when both types of studies were combined. However, there was marginal evidence of heterogeneity among studies (I(2)=33.9%; P=0.06). By excluding other ethnicities and subjects with cancer, the meta-analysis on the basis of 9487 Caucasians demonstrated that Taq1A A1/* genotypes indeed were significantly associated with smoking cessation under both the fixed- and random-effects models (pooled OR 1.22; 95% CI 1.11-1.34; P=3.9 × 10(-5) for both models). No evidence of between-study heterogeneity or publication bias was observed. Thus, we conclude that the polymorphism of Taq1A has an important role in the process of abstaining from smoking, and smokers carrying A2/A2 genotype have a higher likelihood of smoking cessation than those who carry A1/A1 or A1/A2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - M Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - W Yuan
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - K Su
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - M D Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China,Air Center for Air Pollution and Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China,Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA,State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310003, China or Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA. E-mail:
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8
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Blum K, Hauser M, Fratantonio J, Badgaiyan RD. Molecular Genetic Testing in Pain and Addiction: Facts, Fiction and Clinical Utility. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 2:1-5. [PMID: 26807291 DOI: 10.1515/addge-2015-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The Brain Reward Cascade (BRC) is an interaction of neurotransmitters and their respective genes to control the amount of dopamine released within the brain. Any variations within this pathway, whether genetic or environmental (epigenetic), may result in addictive behaviors as well as altered pain tolerance. While there are many studies claiming a genetic association with addiction and other behavioral infractions, defined as Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS), not all are scientifically accurate and in some case just wrong. Albeit our bias, we discuss herein the facts and fictions behind molecular genetic testing in RDS (including pain and addiction) and the significance behind the development of the Genetic Addiction Risk Score (GARSPREDX™), the first test to accurately predict one's genetic risk for RDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Blum
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Mary Hauser
- Divisions of Addiction Services, Dominion Diagnostics,LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
| | - James Fratantonio
- Divisions of Applied Clinical Research & Education, Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
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Blum K, Badgaiyan RD, Agan G, Fratantonio J, Simpatico T, Febo M, Haberstick BC, Smolen A, Gold MS. Molecular Genetic Testing in Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS): Facts and Fiction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 1:65-68. [PMID: 26052557 PMCID: PMC4455960 DOI: 10.17756/jrds.2015-009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Background The Brain Reward Cascade (BRC) is an interaction of neurotransmitters and their respective genes to control the amount of dopamine released within the brain. Any variations within this pathway, whether genetic or environmental (epigenetic), may result in addictive behaviors or RDS, which was coined to define addictive behaviors and their genetic components. Methods To carry out this review we searched a number of important databases including: Filtered: Cochrane Systematic reviews; DARE; Pubmed Central Clinical Quaries; National Guideline Clearinghouse and unfiltered resources: PsychINFO; ACP PIER; PsychSage; Pubmed/Medline. The major search terms included: dopamine agonist therapy for Addiction; dopamine agonist therapy for Reward dependence; dopamine antagonistic therapy for addiction; dopamine antagonistic therapy for reward dependence and neurogenetics of RDS. Results While there are many studies claiming a genetic association with RDS behavior, not all are scientifically accurate. Conclusion Albeit our bias, this Clinical Pearl discusses the facts and fictions behind molecular genetic testing in RDS and the significance behind the development of the Genetic Addiction Risk Score (GARSPREDX™), the first test to accurately predict one’s genetic risk for RDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Blum
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA ; Department of Addiction Research & Therapy, Malibu Beach Recovery Center, Malibu Beach, CA, USA ; Divisions of Addiction Services, and Applied Clinical Research, Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA ; Department of Psychiatry, Human Integrated Services Unit University of Vermont Center for Clinical & Translational Science, College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Rajendra D Badgaiyan
- Department of Psychiatry and Division of Neuroimaging, University of Minnesota College of Medicine, MN, USA
| | - Gozde Agan
- Divisions of Addiction Services, and Applied Clinical Research, Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
| | - James Fratantonio
- Divisions of Addiction Services, and Applied Clinical Research, Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI, USA
| | - Thomas Simpatico
- Department of Psychiatry, Human Integrated Services Unit University of Vermont Center for Clinical & Translational Science, College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Marcelo Febo
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Brett C Haberstick
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Andrew Smolen
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Mark S Gold
- Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences at the Keck, University of Southern California, School of Medicine, CA, USA ; Director of Research, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Educational Foundation, Washington, D.C, USA
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