Ingested Salmonella enterica, Cronobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes: transmission dynamics from adult house flies to their eggs and first filial (F1) generation adults

House Flies (Musca domestica) from Swine and Poultry Farms Carrying Antimicrobial Resistant Enterobacteriaceae and Salmonella

The house fly (Musca domestica) is a very common insect, abundantly present in farm settings. These insects are attracted by organic substrates and can easily be contaminated by several pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria. The aim of this survey was to evaluate the presence of Salmonella spp. and other Enterobacteriaceae in house flies captured in small-medium size farms, located in Northwest Tuscany, Central Italy, and to evaluate their antimicrobial resistance; furthermore, isolates were tested for extended spectrum β-lactamase and carbapenems resistance, considering the importance these antimicrobials have in human therapy. A total of 35 traps were placed in seven poultry and 15 swine farms; three different kinds of samples were analyzed from each trap, representing attractant substrate, insect body surface, and insect whole bodies. Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 86.36% of farms, 82.87% of traps, and 60.95% of samples; high levels of resistance were detected for ampicillin (61.25% of resistant isolates) and tetracycline (42.5% of resistant isolates). One extended spectrum β-lactamase producer strain was isolated, carrying the bla_TEM-1 gene. Salmonella spp. was detected in 36.36% of farms, 25.71% of traps, and 15.24% of samples. Five different serovars were identified: Kentucky, Kisarawe, London, Napoli, and Rubislaw; some isolates were in R phase. Resistance was detected mainly for ampicillin (31.21%) and tetracycline (31.21%). House flies could represent a serious hazard for biosecurity plans at the farm level, carrying and sharing relevant pathogenic and antimicrobial resistant bacteria.

Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from Houseflies in Commercial Turkey Farms Are Frequently Resistant to Multiple Antimicrobials and Exhibit Pronounced Genotypic Diversity

Campylobacter is a leading foodborne pathogen, and poultry are a major vehicle for infection. Houseflies play important roles in colonization of broiler flocks with Campylobacter but comparable information for turkey farms is limited. Here, we investigated houseflies as potential vectors for Campylobacter in 28 commercial turkey flocks. We characterized species, genotypes, and the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles of Campylobacter from turkey feces and houseflies in the same turkey house. Of the 28 flocks, 25 yielded Campylobacter from turkey droppings and houseflies, with an average of 6.25 and 3.11 Campylobacter log CFU/g feces and log CFU/fly, respectively. Three flocks were negative for Campylobacter both in turkey feces and in houseflies. Both C. coli and C. jejuni were detected in turkey feces and houseflies, with C. coli more likely to be recovered from houseflies than feces. Determination of Campylobacter species, genotypes, and AMR profiles revealed up to six different strains in houseflies from a single house, including multidrug-resistant strains. For the predominant strain types, presence in houseflies was predictive of presence in feces, and vice versa. These findings suggest that houseflies may serve as vehicles for dissemination of Campylobacter, including multidrug-resistant strains, within a turkey house, and potentially between different turkey houses and farms in the same region.

Flies as Vectors and Potential Sentinels for Bacterial Pathogens and Antimicrobial Resistance: A Review

The unique biology of flies and their omnipresence in the environment of people and animals makes them ideal candidates to be important vectors of antimicrobial resistance genes. Consequently, there has been increasing research on the bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes that are carried by flies and their role in the spread of resistance. In this review, we describe the current knowledge on the transmission of bacterial pathogens and antimicrobial resistance genes by flies, and the roles flies might play in the maintenance, transmission, and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance.

Carriage of Brachyspira hyodysenteriae on common insect vectors

The interactions of likely insect and murine vectors of the causative agent of swine dysentery, Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, were investigated. Insects were collected and analysed from 3 pig farms positive for B hyodysenteriae. Within these farms, several Musca domestica and Orphyra adult fly, Blatta sp. cockroach digestive tracts and hover fly (Eristalis sp) pupal form contents were positive in a standard PCR assay for B hyodysenteriae, whereas all other insect samples on these and case control farms were negative. In challenge exposure studies, B hyodysenteriae DNA was detected in the digestive tract of cockroaches and M domestica flies from day 1 post-inoculation with cultured B hyodysenteriae, for up to 5 days or 10 days respectively, while control non-inoculated insects remained negative. Isolates consistent with B hyodysenteriae were only cultured from frass samples of these inoculated cockroach and flies on days 1-3 post-inoculation. Isolates consistent with B hyodysenteriae were detected by analysis of agar plates exposed to live B hyodysenteriae-inoculated adult flies wandering and feeding on these plates for 20 min per day. In generational challenge inoculation studies, B hyodysenteriae was detected in the adult emergent flies, and internal components of fly pupae on days 1-7 of the pupation period, after being inoculated with B hyodysenteriae as larvae. Five-week-old conventional mice (C3H) that consumed 2 meals of B hyodysenteriae-infected flies remained negative for B hyodysenteriae throughout the next 10 days. The results indicated that pathogenic Brachyspira sp have a limited ability to internally colonise likely insect vectors and do not readily transmit infection to mice. However, the insect vectors analysed were demonstrably capable of mechanical carriage and likely on-farm involvement in consequence.

Analysis of the Molecular Diversity Among Cronobacter Species Isolated From Filth Flies Using Targeted PCR, Pan Genomic DNA Microarray, and Whole Genome Sequencing Analyses

Cronobacter species are opportunistic pathogens capable of causing life-threatening infections in humans, with serious complications arising in neonates, infants, immuno-compromised individuals, and elderly adults. The genus is comprised of seven species: Cronobacter sakazakii, Cronobacter malonaticus, Cronobacter turicensis, Cronobacter muytjensii, Cronobacter dublinensis, Cronobacter universalis, and Cronobacter condimenti. Despite a multiplicity of genomic data for the genus, little is known about likely transmission vectors. Using DNA microarray analysis, in parallel with whole genome sequencing, and targeted PCR analyses, the total gene content of two C. malonaticus, three C. turicensis, and 14 C. sakazaki isolated from various filth flies was assessed. Phylogenetic relatedness among these and other strains obtained during surveillance and outbreak investigations were comparatively assessed. Specifically, microarray analysis (MA) demonstrated its utility to cluster strains according to species-specific and sequence type (ST) phylogenetic relatedness, and that the fly strains clustered among strains obtained from clinical, food and environmental sources from United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia. This combinatorial approach was useful in data mining for virulence factor genes, and phage genes and gene clusters. In addition, results of plasmidotyping were in agreement with the species identity for each strain as determined by species-specific PCR assays, MA, and whole genome sequencing. Microarray and BLAST analyses of Cronobacter fly sequence datasets were corroborative and showed that the presence and absence of virulence factors followed species and ST evolutionary lines even though such genes were orthologous. Additionally, zebrafish infectivity studies showed that these pathotypes were as virulent to zebrafish embryos as other clinical strains. In summary, these findings support a striking phylogeny amongst fly, clinical, and surveillance strains isolated during 2010–2015, suggesting that flies are capable vectors for transmission of virulent Cronobacter spp.; they continue to circulate among United States and European populations, environments, and that this “pattern of circulation” has continued over decades.

The gut bacterial communities across six grasshopper species from a coastal tallgrass prairie

Insect microbiomes play an important role in the health and fitness of insect hosts by contributing to nutrient absorption, immune health, and overall ecological fitness. As such, research interests in insect microbiomes have focused on agriculturally and industrially important organisms such as honey bees and termites. Orthopterans, on the other hand, have not been well explored for their resident microbial communities. Grasshoppers are an integral part of grassland ecosystems and provide important ecosystem services. Conversely, grasshoppers can be an agricultural pest requiring management with broad spectrum pesticides. However, little is known about the microbiomes of grasshoppers and their potential contribution to grasshopper biology. Here we examine the gut microbiome of six species of grasshoppers (n = 60) from a coastal tallgrass prairie ecosystem to gain a better understanding of the microbial communities present across the orthopteran order in this ecosystem. We found that there are bacterial phyla common to all six grasshopper species: Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and to a lesser degree, Tenericutes. Although the grasshopper species shared a high relative abundance of these groups, there were notable shifts in dominant phyla depending on the grasshopper species. Moreover, measures of alpha diversity revealed a more diverse microbiome in males than females. Our observations support the hypothesis that there is a "core" group of bacterial families in these grasshopper species and factors such as trophic behaviors and the evolution of the host may contribute to the shifts in prevalence among these core microbial groups.

Insect exclusion limits variation in bacterial microbiomes of tomato flowers and fruit

AIMS

The effect of insect exclusion via netting on bacterial microbiota associated with field-grown tomato fruit and flowers was evaluated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Amplicon-based bacterial community profiling from insect-exposed plants and plants wrapped in nylon mosquito netting was conducted on total DNA extracted from tomato flower and mature unripe fruit washes. The V1-V3 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using Illumina MiSeq and analysed using qiime ver. 1.8. The carposphere supported significantly more phylogenetic diversity (PD) compared to the anthosphere, as measured by operational taxonomic unit richness (P = 0·001) and Faith's PD (P = 0·004). Flowers and fruit hosted distinct bacterial community structures (R2 = 0·27, P = 0·001), with specific taxonomic differences in taxa that included the Xanthomonadaceae (higher in flowers), and the Pseudomonadaceae, Methylobacteriaceae and Rhizobiales (higher in fruit) (FDR-P < 0·05). Bacterial community profiles of netted plants were overall statistically similar to non-netted plants for both flowers and fruit (P > 0·10). However, less variation between samples was observed among flowers (~50% less, P = 0·004) and green fruit (~10% less, P = 0·038) collected from netted than non-netted plants.

CONCLUSION

Insects may introduce or augment variability in bacterial diversity associated with tomato flowers and potentially green fruit surfaces.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This work contributes to knowledge on microbiome dynamics of the tomato holobiont. Deciphering drivers of bacterial diversity and community structure of fruit crops could reveal processes important to agricultural management, such as competitive exclusion of pathogens and priming of plant defense mechanisms.

A systematic review of human pathogens carried by the housefly (Musca domestica L.)

BACKGROUND

The synanthropic house fly, Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae), is a mechanical vector of pathogens (bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites), some of which cause serious diseases in humans and domestic animals. In the present study, a systematic review was done on the types and prevalence of human pathogens carried by the house fly.

METHODS

Major health-related electronic databases including PubMed, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, and Science Direct were searched (Last update 31/11/2017) for relevant literature on pathogens that have been isolated from the house fly.

RESULTS

Of the 1718 titles produced by bibliographic search, 99 were included in the review. Among the titles included, 69, 15, 3, 4, 1 and 7 described bacterial, fungi, bacteria+fungi, parasites, parasite+bacteria, and viral pathogens, respectively. Most of the house flies were captured in/around human habitation and animal farms. Pathogens were frequently isolated from body surfaces of the flies. Over 130 pathogens, predominantly bacteria (including some serious and life-threatening species) were identified from the house flies. Numerous publications also reported antimicrobial resistant bacteria and fungi isolated from house flies.

CONCLUSIONS

This review showed that house flies carry a large number of pathogens which can cause serious infections in humans and animals. More studies are needed to identify new pathogens carried by the house fly.

Escherichia coli, cattle and the propagation of disease

Several early models describing host–pathogen interaction have assumed that each individual host has approximately the same likelihood of becoming infected or of infecting others. More recently, a concept that has been increasingly emphasized in many studies is that for many infectious diseases, transmission is not homogeneous but highly skewed at the level of populations. In what became known as the ‘20/80 rule’, about 20% of the hosts in a population were found to contribute to about 80% of the transmission potential. These heterogeneities have been described for the interaction between many microorganisms and their human or animal hosts. Several epidemiological studies have reported transmission heterogeneities for Escherichia coli by cattle, a phenomenon with far-reaching agricultural, medical and public health implications. Focusing on E. coli as a case study, this paper will describe super-spreading and super-shedding by cattle, review the main factors that shape these transmission heterogeneities and examine the interface with human health. Escherichia coli super-shedding and super-spreading by cattle are shaped by microorganism-specific, cattle-specific and environmental factors. Understanding the factors that shape heterogeneities in E. coli dispersion by cattle and the implications for human health represent key components that are critical for targeted infection control initiatives.

Bacterial Contamination of Adult House Flies (Musca domestica) and Sensitivity of these Bacteria to Various Antibiotics, Captured from Hamadan City, Iran

INTRODUCTION

House flies (Musca domestica) have been known as a mechanical vector in spreading infectious diseases such as cholera, shigellosis, salmonellosis and skin infections.

AIM

To investigate the bacterial contaminations of house flies and determine the resistance of these bacteria against various antibiotics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An analytical descriptive cross- sectional study was conducted. The study was performed from July to September 2015 in Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran. A total number of 300 house flies were collected from four places, 75 flies from each place, including two educational hospitals belonging to Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, a fruit and vegetables center, and a livestock slaughter. The body surface of house flies was washed using the physiological sterile serum and the obtained solution was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for five minutes. The identification of bacteria was carried out using the phenotypic methods. The resistance of bacteria against various antibiotics was determined using the disk diffusion approach. Data were analysed by the employment of SPSS software package version 20.0.

RESULTS

A total number of 394 bacterial strains were isolated from 275 house flies. The most prevalent type of bacteria was Bacillus spp which was detected in 31.1% of house flies. Moreover, Staphylococcusspp. (22.9%), Escherichiacoli (11.6%) were other prevalent species, whereas, Enterococcusspp. was the least prevalent type of bacteria in the collected house flies. In terms of resistance to antibiotics, it was identified that bacteria extracted from house flies which were collected from hospital environments were more resistant to antibiotics compared with the resistance of bacteria extracted from house flies which were collected from non hospital environments. The maximum bacterial isolation was found in houseflies from hospital No.1 environment from around the accumulation of garbage.

CONCLUSION

It is a well-known fact that house flies are a source of bacterial contamination and can act as a mechanical carrier and cause bacterial diseases. It can be postulated that house flies play a major role in spreading antibiotic resistant bacteria. However, the flies from hospital environments were more contaminated, mainly because the people referring to health center are normally ill and carrier of many pathogens. Further, hospital environments should be controlled using administrative procedures.

Routes of Transmission in the Food Chain

More than 250 different foodborne diseases have been described to date, annually affecting about one-third of the world's population. The incidence of foodborne diseases has been underreported and underestimated, and the asymptomatic presentation of some of the illnesses, worldwide heterogeneities in reporting, and the alternative transmission routes of certain pathogens are among the factors that contribute to this. Globalization, centralization of the food supply, transportation of food products progressively farther from their places of origin, and the multitude of steps where contamination may occur have made it increasingly challenging to investigate foodborne and waterborne outbreaks. Certain foodborne pathogens may be transmitted directly from animals to humans, while others are transmitted through vectors, such as insects, or through food handlers, contaminated food products or food-processing surfaces, or transfer from sponges, cloths, or utensils. Additionally, the airborne route may contribute to the transmission of certain foodborne pathogens. Complicating epidemiological investigations, multiple transmission routes have been described for some foodborne pathogens. Two types of transmission barriers, primary and secondary, have been described for foodborne pathogens, each of them providing opportunities for preventing and controlling outbreaks. Primary barriers, the most effective sites of prophylactic intervention, prevent pathogen entry into the environment, while secondary barriers prevent the multiplication and dissemination of pathogens that have already entered the environment. Understanding pathogen dynamics, monitoring transmission, and implementing preventive measures are complicated by the phenomenon of superspreading, which refers to the concept that, at the level of populations, a minority of hosts is responsible for the majority of transmission events.