Transmission and serotype features of hand foot mouth disease in household contacts in Dong Thap, Vietnam

Monitoring hand foot and mouth disease using long-term wastewater surveillance in Japan: Quantitative PCR assay development and application

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a highly contagious disease that primarily affects children under five years of age. It is mainly caused by serotypes of Enterovirus A (EVA): EVA71, Coxsackievirus A types 6 (CVA6), 10 (CVA10), and 16 (CVA16). Despite being highly prevalent in Japan and other countries in the Asia-Pacific region, few studies have investigated HFMD pathogens in wastewater. The present study aimed to develop a highly sensitive and broadly reactive quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay of dominant serotype CVA6, to revise previously developed CVA6, CVA10, and CVA16 assays, and to test these assays in wastewater samples from Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. The new-CVA6 qPCR assay was developed with maximal nucleotide percent identity among CVA6 isolates from Japan. The new-CVA6 and revised assays were highly sensitive and had the ability to quantify respective positive controls at levels as low as 1 copy/μL. Among the 53 grab influent samples collected between March 2022 and March 2023, EVA71, CVA10, and CVA16 RNA were not detected in any samples, whereas the new-CVA6 assay could detect CVA6 RNA in 38 % (20/53) of samples. CVA6 RNA was detected at a significantly higher concentration in the summer season (3.3 ± 0.8 log10 copies/L; 79 % (11/14)) than in autumn (2.7 ± 0.6 log10 copies/L; 69 % (9/13)). The seasonal trend of CVA6 RNA detection in wastewater aligned with the trend of HFMD case reports in the catchment of the wastewater treatment plant. This is the first study to report the detection and seasonal trends of the EVA serotypes associated with HFMD in wastewater samples in Japan. It provides evidence that wastewater-based epidemiology is applicable even for diseases that are prevalent only in specific population groups.

Enterovirus 71-Associated Infection in South Vietnam: Vaccination Is a Real Solution

Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is the most common enteroviral infection in South-East Asia. When evaluating the role of enterovirus 71 (EVA71) as an etiological agent of infectious disease in South Vietnam, we revealed a high proportion of EVA71 among identified species A enteroviruses found in 3542 samples from HFMD cases; 125 samples from cases of enteroviral meningitis; and 130 samples from acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) cases. These represent 50%, 54.8%, and 51.5%, respectively. According to molecular analysis, 90% of EVA71 were attributed to genotype C4 and 10% were attributed to genotype B5. The predominance of EVA71 circulation among the population proves the need to strengthen surveillance (with monitoring of enterovirus circulation for facilitation of HFMD outbreak prediction) and to increase the effectiveness of preventative measures by the implementation of vaccination against EVA71-associated infections. A phase III trial of a Taiwanese vaccine (EV71vac) in Taiwan and South Vietnam showed its safety, tolerability, and efficacy in children aged 2-71 months. This B4 genotype-based vaccine, which features cross-protection against B5 and C4 genotypes, and other existing EV71 vaccines can serve as a good approach to solving the HFMD problem, which is so important for Vietnam.

Serotype analysis of pediatric enteroviral meningitis in Gwangju, Republic of Korea: Number of annual cases, distribution by age group, and characteristics of each serotype

BACKGROUND

Enteroviral meningitis is a common disease in children; however, serotype data are still lacking, especially for late childhood.

OBJECTIVES

This study analyzed the number of annual cases, distribution by age group, and characteristics of each serotype among children with enteroviral meningitis.

STUDY DESIGN

After the initial screening of 1,009 children (<18 years) with viral meningitis between 2008 and 2021, the data of enteroviral meningitis were retrospectively reviewed. The number of annual cases and serotypes were investigated. The distribution of serotypes across different ages was reviewed. Clinical characteristics of the major serotypes (detected in at least 15 patients) were further examined.

RESULTS

Among the 700 patients with enteroviral meningitis, serotypes were tested in 517 patients (73.9%), which could be typed in 370 patients (71.6%). EV-A71 was the most common serotype detected in 2010, 2012, and 2019. After 2020, enterovirus was rarely detected. The group B coxsackieviruses (CVBs) were commonly detected in neonates (CVB1, 33.3%) and infants (CVB5, 17.4%). The echoviruses were commonly detected beyond infancy; E30 was the most frequently detected in late childhood (14.4%) and adolescents (15.4%). EV-A71 was the most frequently detected in early childhood (17.2%). Between the 11 major serotypes, vomiting, headache, and irritability were more commonly associated with echoviruses (P <0.01). In EV-A71, neurologic symptoms and skin lesions were more common (P <0.01).

CONCLUSION

The CVBs were commonly detected in neonates and infants, whereas the echoviruses were commonly detected beyond infancy and caused vomiting, headache, and irritability. EV-A71 was the most frequently detected in early childhood, frequently causing neurologic and dermatologic problems.

Flexible, anti-damage, and non-contact sensing electronic skin implanted with MWCNT to block public pathogens contact infection

If a person comes into contact with pathogens on public facilities, there is a threat of contact (skin/wound) infections. More urgently, there are also reports about COVID-19 coronavirus contact infection, which once again reminds that contact infection is a very easily overlooked disease exposure route. Herein, we propose an innovative implantation strategy to fabricate a multi-walled carbon nanotube/polyvinyl alcohol (MWCNT/PVA, MCP) interpenetrating interface to achieve flexibility, anti-damage, and non-contact sensing electronic skin (E-skin). Interestingly, the MCP E-skin had a fascinating non-contact sensing function, which can respond to the finger approaching 0-20 mm through the spatial weak field. This non-contact sensing can be applied urgently to human-machine interactions in public facilities to block pathogen. The scratches of the fruit knife did not damage the MCP E-skin, and can resist chemical corrosion after hydrophobic treatment. In addition, the MCP E-skin was developed to real-time monitor the respiratory and cough for exercise detection and disease diagnosis. Notably, the MCP E-skin has great potential for emergency applications in times of infectious disease pandemics.

ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

Supplementary material (fabrication of MCP E-skin, laser confocal tomography, parameter optimization, mechanical property characterization, finite element simulation, sensing mechanism, signal processing) is available in the online version of this article at 10.1007/s12274-021-3831-z.

Incidence of Infection of Enterovirus 71 and Coxsackieviruses A6 and A16 among Household Contacts of Index Cases in Dong Thap Province, Southern Vietnam

Background

Scarce information exists about immunity to hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) among household contacts of index cases in Vietnam and what that means for reducing ongoing HFMD transmission in the community.

Methods

We analyzed neutralizing antibodies (NT) and the incidence of enterovirus (EVs) infection among household contacts of index cases in a province where HFMD remains endemic. Throat swab and 2 mL blood samples from household contacts were collected at enrollment, during and after 2 weeks follow-up.

Results

The incidence of EV-A71 infection among household contacts was 40/84 (47.6%, 95% Cl: 36.9-58.3%), compared with 106/336 (31.5%, 95% Cl: 26.6-36.5%) for CV-A6 and 36/107 (33.6%, 95% Cl: 24.7-42.6%) for CV-A16. The incidence of CV-A6 infection was fairly constant across ages; in contrast, CV-A71 and CV-A16 had some variation across ages. At baseline, higher geometric mean titer (GMT) of EV-A71, CV-A6, and CV-A16 antibody titers was found for 25-34-year groups (range 216.3 to 305.0) compared to the other age groups. There was a statistically significant difference in GMT values of CV-A6 and CV-A16 between those who had an infection or did not have infection among households with an index case of these serotypes.

Conclusions

Our results indicated that adults were becoming infected with HFMD and could be contributing to the transmission. There is, therefore, a need for considering the household setting as an additional target for intervention programs for HFMD.

Estimating and interpreting secondary attack risk: Binomial considered biased

The household secondary attack risk (SAR), often called the secondary attack rate or secondary infection risk, is the probability of infectious contact from an infectious household member A to a given household member B, where we define infectious contact to be a contact sufficient to infect B if he or she is susceptible. Estimation of the SAR is an important part of understanding and controlling the transmission of infectious diseases. In practice, it is most often estimated using binomial models such as logistic regression, which implicitly attribute all secondary infections in a household to the primary case. In the simplest case, the number of secondary infections in a household with m susceptibles and a single primary case is modeled as a binomial(m, p) random variable where p is the SAR. Although it has long been understood that transmission within households is not binomial, it is thought that multiple generations of transmission can be neglected safely when p is small. We use probability generating functions and simulations to show that this is a mistake. The proportion of susceptible household members infected can be substantially larger than the SAR even when p is small. As a result, binomial estimates of the SAR are biased upward and their confidence intervals have poor coverage probabilities even if adjusted for clustering. Accurate point and interval estimates of the SAR can be obtained using longitudinal chain binomial models or pairwise survival analysis, which account for multiple generations of transmission within households, the ongoing risk of infection from outside the household, and incomplete follow-up. We illustrate the practical implications of these results in an analysis of household surveillance data collected by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health during the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic.

The household secondary attack risk (SAR), often called the secondary attack rate or secondary infection risk, is the probability of infectious contact from an infectious household member A to a given household member B, where we define infectious contact to be a contact sufficient to infect B if he or she is susceptible. The most common statistical models used to estimate the SAR are binomial models such as logistic regression, which implicitly assume that all secondary infections in a household are infected by the primary case. Here, we use analytical calculations and simulations to show that estimation of the SAR must account for multiple generations of transmission within households. As an example, we show that binomial models and statistical models that account for multiple generations of within-household transmission reach different conclusions about the household SAR for 2009 influenza A (H1N1) in Los Angeles County, with the latter models fitting the data better. In an epidemic, accurate estimation of the SAR allows rigorous evaluation of the effectiveness of public health interventions such as social distancing, prophylaxis or treatment, and vaccination.

Association of environmental factors and high HFMD occurrence in northern Thailand

Background

The major population vulnerable to hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) is children aged less than 5 years, particularly those who are cared for at day care centers (DCCs). This study aimed to assess the associations of environmental and sanitation factors with high HFMD occurrence rates in DCCs of northern Thailand.

Methods

A case-control study was used to gather information from caregivers and local government administrative officers. DCCs in areas with high and low HFMD occurrence rates were the settings for this study. A validated questionnaire was used to collect environmental and sanitation information from the DCCs. In-depth interviews were used to collect information from selected participants who were working at DCCs and from local government administrative officers on the HFMD capacity and prevention and control strategies in DCCs. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the associations between many environmental factors and HFMD at the α = 0.05 significance level while the content analysis was used to extract information from the interviews.

Results

Two variables were found to be associated with a high rate of HFMD occurrence: the number of sinks available in restrooms and the DCC size. Children attending DCCs that did not meet the standard in terms of the number of sinks in restrooms had a greater chance of contracting HFMD than children who were attending DCCs that met the standard (AOR = 4.21; 95% CI = 1.13–15.04). Children who were attending a large-sized DCC had a greater chance of contracting HFMD than those attending a small-sized DCC (AOR = 3.28; 95% CI = 1.21–5.18). The yearly budget allocation and the strategies for HFMD control and prevention, including collaborations among stakeholders for HFMD control and prevention in DCCs, were associated with the effectiveness of HFMD control and prevention.

Conclusions

The number of sinks in restrooms and DCC size are major concerns for HFMD outbreaks. Sufficient budget allocation and good collaboration contribute to effective strategies for preventing and controlling HFMD in DCCs.

A novel orally infected hamster model for Coxsackievirus A16 hand-foot-and-mouth disease and encephalomyelitis

Coxsackievirus A16 (CV-A16) is one of the major causes of mild and self-limiting hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) in young children, which may occasionally leads to serious neurological complications. In this study, we had developed a novel, consistent, orally infected CV-A16 HFMD hamster model with encephalomyelitis. Four groups of 7-day-old hamsters in a kinetic study were orally infected with mouse-adapted CV-A16 strains and sacrificed at 1-4 days post infection (dpi), respectively. Tissues were studied by light microscopy, immunohistochemistry to detect viral antigens, in situ hybridization to detect viral RNA, and by viral titration. In a separate transmission experiment, orally infected index hamsters were housed together with contact hamsters to investigate oral and fecal viral shedding by virus culture and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). At severe infection/death endpoints, index and contact hamster infection were also histopathologically analyzed. In the kinetic study, infected hamsters developed signs of infection at 4 dpi. Viral antigens/RNA were localized to brainstem (medulla/pons; reticular formation and motor trigeminal nucleus) and spinal cord anterior horn neurons, oral squamous epithelia and epidermis from 3 to 4 dpi. Salivary and lacrimal glands, myocardium, brown adipose tissue, intestinal smooth muscle, and skeletal muscle infection was also demonstrated. Viremia at 1 dpi and increasing viral titers in various tissues were observed from 2 dpi. In the transmission study, all contact hamsters developed disease 3-5 days later than index hamsters, but demonstrated similar histopathological findings at endpoint. Viral culture and RT-PCR positive oral washes and feces confirmed viral shedding. Our hamster model, orally infected by the natural route for human infection, confirmed CV-A16 neurotropism and demonstrated squamous epitheliotropism reminiscent of HFMD, attributes not found in other animal models. It should be useful to investigate neuropathogenesis, model person-to-person transmission, and for testing antiviral drugs and vaccines.