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Chiu YH, Huybrechts KF, Patorno E, Yland JJ, Cesta CE, Bateman BT, Seely EW, Hernán MA, Hernández-Díaz S. Metformin Use in the First Trimester of Pregnancy and Risk for Nonlive Birth and Congenital Malformations: Emulating a Target Trial Using Real-World Data. Ann Intern Med 2024. [PMID: 38885505 DOI: 10.7326/m23-2038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metformin is a first-line pharmacotherapy for type 2 diabetes, but there is limited evidence about its safety in early pregnancy. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the teratogenicity of metformin use in the first trimester of pregnancy. DESIGN In an observational cohort of pregnant women with pregestational type 2 diabetes receiving metformin monotherapy before the last menstrual period (LMP), a target trial with 2 treatment strategies was emulated: insulin monotherapy (discontinue metformin treatment and initiate insulin within 90 days of LMP) or insulin plus metformin (continue metformin and initiate insulin within 90 days of LMP). SETTING U.S. Medicaid health care administration database (2000 to 2018). PARTICIPANTS 12 489 pregnant women who met the eligibility criteria. MEASUREMENTS The risk and risk ratio of nonlive births, live births with congenital malformations, and congenital malformations among live births were estimated using standardization to adjust for covariates. RESULTS A total of 850 women were in the insulin monotherapy group and 1557 in the insulin plus metformin group. The estimated risk for nonlive birth was 32.7% under insulin monotherapy (reference) and 34.3% under insulin plus metformin (risk ratio, 1.02 [95% CI, 1.01 to 1.04]). The estimated risk for live birth with congenital malformations was 8.0% (CI, 5.7% to 10.2%) under insulin monotherapy and 5.7% (CI, 4.5% to 7.3%) under insulin plus metformin (risk ratio, 0.72 [CI, 0.51 to 1.09]). LIMITATION Possible residual confounding by glycemic control and body mass index. CONCLUSION Compared with switching to insulin monotherapy, continuing metformin and adding insulin in early pregnancy resulted in little to no increased risk for nonlive birth among women receiving metformin before pregnancy. Under conventional statistical criteria, anything between a 49% decrease and a 9% increase in risk for congenital malformations was highly compatible with our data. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE National Institutes of Health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Han Chiu
- CAUSALab and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (Y.-H.C., S.H.)
| | - Krista F Huybrechts
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (K.F.H., E.P.)
| | - Elisabetta Patorno
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (K.F.H., E.P.)
| | - Jennifer J Yland
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (J.J.Y.)
| | - Carolyn E Cesta
- Centre for Pharmacoepidemiology, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.E.C.)
| | - Brian T Bateman
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California (B.T.B.)
| | - Ellen W Seely
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (E.W.S.)
| | - Miguel A Hernán
- CAUSALab, Department of Epidemiology, and Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (M.A.H.)
| | - Sonia Hernández-Díaz
- CAUSALab and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (Y.-H.C., S.H.)
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Paschou SA, Shalit A, Gerontiti E, Athanasiadou KI, Kalampokas T, Psaltopoulou T, Lambrinoudaki I, Anastasiou E, Wolffenbuttel BHR, Goulis DG. Efficacy and safety of metformin during pregnancy: an update. Endocrine 2024; 83:259-269. [PMID: 37798604 PMCID: PMC10850184 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-023-03550-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
During the last decades, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) prevalence has been on the rise. While insulin remains the gold standard treatment for GDM, metformin use during pregnancy is controversial. This review aimed to comprehensively assess the available data on the efficacy and safety of metformin during pregnancy, both for the mother and the offspring. Metformin has been validated for maternal efficacy and safety, achieving comparable glycemic control with insulin. Additionally, it reduces maternal weight gain and possibly the occurrence of hypertensive disorders. During the early neonatal period, metformin administration does not increase the risk of congenital anomalies or other major adverse effects, including lower APGAR score at 5 min, neonatal intensive care unit admissions, and respiratory distress syndrome. Several studies have demonstrated a reduction in neonatal hypoglycemia. Metformin has been associated with an increase in preterm births and lower birth weight, although this effect is controversial and depends on the indication for which it was administered. Evidence indicates possible altered fetal programming and predisposition to childhood obesity and metabolic syndrome during adulthood after use of metformin in pregnancy. With critical questions still requiring a final verdict, ongoing research on the field must be conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavroula A Paschou
- Endocrine Unit and Diabetes Center, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
| | - Almog Shalit
- Endocrine Unit and Diabetes Center, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Gerontiti
- Endocrine Unit and Diabetes Center, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Kleoniki I Athanasiadou
- Endocrine Unit and Diabetes Center, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodoros Kalampokas
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aretaieion University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodora Psaltopoulou
- Endocrine Unit and Diabetes Center, Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Irene Lambrinoudaki
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aretaieion University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Bruce H R Wolffenbuttel
- Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dimitrios G Goulis
- Unit of Reproductive Endocrinology, First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Cesta CE, Hernández-Díaz S, Huybrechts KF, Bateman BT, Vine S, Seely EW, Patorno E. Achieving comparability in glycemic control between antidiabetic treatment strategies in pregnancy when using real world data. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2023; 32:1350-1359. [PMID: 37461243 PMCID: PMC10792121 DOI: 10.1002/pds.5665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Healthcare utilization databases often lack information on glycemic control, a key confounder when studying the safety of antidiabetic treatments, since patients with worse control are channeled to second-line agents, in particular insulin, versus first-line agents such as metformin. We evaluated whether adjustment for measured characteristics attains balance in glycemic control when comparing antidiabetic treatment strategies in pregnant women with pregestational type 2 diabetes (T2DM). METHODS In a US insurance claims database, we identified 3360 women with T2DM pregnant between 2004 and 2015, of whom a subset of 996 had data on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c ) levels. We selected insulin only as the comparator group and used propensity score (PS)-matching on comorbidities and proxies of diabetes severity, but not on HbA1c , to adjust for confounding. We used standardized differences (st.diff) to assess balance in claims-based covariates and mean HbA1c (% ± SD) in the subset. RESULTS There were imbalances in claims-based covariates before PS-matching, with smaller differences when both treatment strategies included insulin. After PS-matching, balance was achieved in most claims-based covariates (st.diff <0.1). Mean HbA1c was similar before and after PS-matching when both treatments included insulin (e.g., 7.1 ± 1.5 vs. 7.7 ± 1.8 and 7.1 ± 1.5 vs. 7.5 ± 1.7, respectively, for metformin + insulin vs. insulin only). Differences in mean HbA1c remained after PS-matching when non-insulin treatments were compared to treatments including insulin (e.g., 6.3 ± 1.1 vs. 7.6 ± 1.7 for metformin only vs. insulin only). CONCLUSIONS Balance in both claims-based characteristics and glycemic control was attained after restricting the population to women with T2DM and comparing treatment strategies indicated for patients with similar diabetes severity. When comparing treatment strategies with versus without insulin, differences in glycemic control persisted after PS-matching even when balance was attained for other measured characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn E Cesta
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA
- Centre for Pharmacoepidemiology, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sonia Hernández-Díaz
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA
| | - Krista F Huybrechts
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Brian T Bateman
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, USA
| | - Seanna Vine
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Ellen W Seely
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension Division, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School
| | - Elisabetta Patorno
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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Raets L, Ingelbrecht A, Benhalima K. Management of type 2 diabetes in pregnancy: a narrative review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1193271. [PMID: 37547311 PMCID: PMC10402739 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1193271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) at reproductive age is rising. Women with T2DM have a similarly high risk for pregnancy complications as pregnant women with type 1 diabetes. To reduce adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes, such as preeclampsia and preterm delivery, a multi-target approach is necessary. Tight glycemic control together with appropriate gestational weight gain, lifestyle measures, and if necessary, antihypertensive treatment and low-dose aspirin is advised. This narrative review discusses the latest evidence on preconception care, management of diabetes-related complications, lifestyle counselling, recommendations on gestational weight gain, pharmacologic treatment and early postpartum management of T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lore Raets
- Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Katrien Benhalima
- Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Abolhassani N, Winterfeld U, Kaplan YC, Jaques C, Minder Wyssmann B, Del Giovane C, Panchaud A. Major malformations risk following early pregnancy exposure to metformin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2023; 11:11/1/e002919. [PMID: 36720508 PMCID: PMC9890805 DOI: 10.1136/bmjdrc-2022-002919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Metformin is considered as first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes and an effective treatment for polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). However, evidence regarding its safety in pregnancy is limited. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of major congenital malformations (MCMs) risk after first-trimester exposure to metformin in women with PCOS and pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM). Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational cohort studies with a control group investigating risk of MCM after first-trimester pregnancy exposure to metformin were searched until December 2021. ORs and 95% CIs were calculated separately according to indications and study type using Mantel-Haenszel method; outcome data were combined using random-effects model. Eleven studies (two RCTs; nine observational cohorts) met the inclusion criteria: four included pregnant women with PCOS, four included those with PGDM and three evaluated both indications separately and were considered in both indication groups. In PCOS group, there were two RCTs (57 exposed, 52 control infants) and five observational studies (472 exposed, 1892 control infants); point estimates for MCM rates in RCTs and observational studies were OR 0.93 (95% CI 0.09 to 9.21) (I2=0%; Q test=0.31; p value=0.58) and OR 1.35 (95% CI 0.37 to 4.90) (I2=65%; Q test=9.43; p value=0.05), respectively. In PGDM group, all seven studies were observational (1122 exposed, 1851 control infants); the point estimate for MCM rates was OR 1.05 (95% CI 0.50 to 2.18) (I2=59%; Q test=16.34; p value=0.01). Metformin use in first-trimester pregnancy in women with PCOS or PGDM do not meaningfully increase the MCM risk overall. However, further studies are needed to characterize residual safety concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazanin Abolhassani
- Institute of Primary Health Care (BIHAM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Systems, Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Ursula Winterfeld
- Service de Pharmacologie Clinique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Yusuf C Kaplan
- Izmir University of Economics, School of Medicine, Izmir University of Economics, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Cécile Jaques
- Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Beatrice Minder Wyssmann
- Public Health & Primary Care Library, University Library of Bern, University of Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Cinzia Del Giovane
- Institute of Primary Health Care (BIHAM), University of Bern, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alice Panchaud
- Primary Care Pharmacy, Institute of Primary Health Care (BIHAM), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Materno-fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, Department "Femme-Mère-Enfant", University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Brand KMG, Saarelainen L, Sonajalg J, Boutmy E, Foch C, Vääräsmäki M, Morin-Papunen L, Schlachter J, Hakkarainen KM, Korhonen P. Metformin in pregnancy and risk of adverse long-term outcomes: a register-based cohort study. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2022; 10:10/1/e002363. [PMID: 34987051 PMCID: PMC8734020 DOI: 10.1136/bmjdrc-2021-002363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate if maternal pregnancy exposure to metformin is associated with increased risk of long-term and short-term adverse outcomes in the child. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS : This register-based cohort study from Finland included singleton children born 2004-2016 with maternal pregnancy exposure to metformin or insulin (excluding maternal type 1 diabetes): metformin only (n=3967), insulin only (n=5273) and combination treatment (metformin and insulin; n=889). The primary outcomes were long-term offspring obesity, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, diabetes, hypertension, polycystic ovary syndrome, and challenges in motor-social development. In a sensitivity analysis, the primary outcomes were investigated only among children with maternal gestational diabetes. Secondary outcomes were adverse outcomes at birth. Analyses were conducted using inverse- probability of treatment weighting (IPTW), with insulin as reference. RESULTS : Exposure to metformin or combination treatment versus insulin was not associated with increased risk of long-term outcomes in the main or sensitivity analyses. Among the secondary outcomes, increased risk of small for gestational age (SGA) was observed for metformin (IPTW-weighted OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.16 to 2.34); increased risk of large for gestational age, preterm birth and hypoglycemia was observed for combination treatment. No increased risk was observed for neonatal mortality, hyperglycemia, or major congenital anomalies. CONCLUSIONS : This study found no increased long-term risk associated with pregnancy exposure to metformin (alone or in combination with insulin), compared with insulin. The increased risk of SGA associated with metformin versus insulin suggests caution in pregnancies with at-risk fetal undernutrition. The increased risks of adverse outcomes at birth associated with combination treatment may reflect confounding by indication or severity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Marja Vääräsmäki
- PEDEGO Research Unit, Medical Research Centre Oulu, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
- University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Laure Morin-Papunen
- PEDEGO Research Unit, Medical Research Centre Oulu, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
- University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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Quadir H. Current Therapeutic Use of Metformin During Pregnancy: Maternal Changes, Postnatal Effects and Safety. Cureus 2021; 13:e18818. [PMID: 34804675 PMCID: PMC8592788 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.18818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Metformin is one of the most easily available medications for diabetes and has a relatively low cost. It is not only used in diabetes but is also effective in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and obesity. Although insulin is the first choice when it comes to treating pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), metformin has also been debated as a good choice after modification of diet. As metformin passes through the placenta, it is essential to know its consequence of leading to insulin resistance in the fetus as well as the impact on postnatal development. The use of metformin during GDM has raised many trials demonstrating that outcomes from the use of metformin are similar to those achieved with insulin. Follow-up studies were also conducted that assessed the impact on children exposed to metformin in utero. This review highlights the experimental evidence relating to the use of metformin during pregnancy for different conditions, and its impact on the growth and development of offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huma Quadir
- Internal Medicine/Family Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA.,Neurology, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
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