Hepatic encephalopathy increases the risk of hip fracture: a nationwide cohort study

Prognostic Factors of Hip Fracture in Elderly: A Systematic Review

The hip fracture causes significant disabilities in many elderly people. Many studies around the world have identified various risk factors for the hip fracture. The aim of this study was to systematically investigate the risk factors of hip fractures. This study is a systematic review of risk factors for hip fractures. All published papers in English and Persian languages on patients in Iran and other countries between 2002 - 2022 were examined. The search strategy used keywords matching the mesh, including : predictors, hip fracture, and disability. Articles were selected from international databases (PubMed, Proquest ,Web of Sience, Scopus, Google scholar and Persian(Sid,Magiran), and the Newcastle Ottawa Scale was used to assess the risk of bias. The study has identified several factors that were significantly correlated with the risk of hip fracture, including age, cigarette and alcohol consumption, visual and hearing problems, low BMI levels, history of falling, weakness, and diseases such as stroke, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, arthritis, diabetes, dementia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, liver and kidney diseases, bone density, osteoporosis, vertebral fracture, and hyperthyroidism. However, the study did not find any significant correlations between the consumption of calcium and vitamin D, history of fractures, cognitive disorders, schizophrenia, and household income, and the risk of hip fracture. The results of this study reveal the determining role of some risk factors in hip fracture in older persons. Therefore, it is recommended that health policy makers provide the possibility of early intervention for some changeable factors.

Age and Sex in the Development of Hepatic Encephalopathy: Role of Alcohol

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neurological condition linked to liver failure. Acute HE (Type A) occurs with acute liver failure, while chronic HE (Type C) is tied to cirrhosis and portal hypertension. HE treatments lag due to gaps in understanding its development by gender and age. We studied how sex and age impact HE and its severity with combined liver toxins. Our findings indicate that drug-induced (thioacetamide, TAA) brain edema was more severe in aged males than in young males or young/aged female rats. However, adding alcohol (ethanol, EtOH) worsens TAA's brain edema in both young and aged females, with females experiencing a more severe effect than males. These patterns also apply to Type A HE induced by azoxymethane (AZO) in mice. Similarly, TAA-induced behavioral deficits in Type C HE were milder in young and aged females than in males. Conversely, EtOH and TAA in young/aged males led to severe brain edema and fatality without noticeable behavioral changes. TAA metabolism was slower in aged males than in young or middle-aged rats. When TAA-treated aged male rats received EtOH, there was a slow and sustained plasma level of thioacetamide sulfoxide (TASO). This suggests that with EtOH, TAA-induced HE is more severe in aged males. TAA metabolism was similar in young, middle-aged, and aged female rats. However, with EtOH, young and aged females experience more severe drug-induced HE as compared to middle-aged adult rats. These findings strongly suggest that gender and age play a role in the severity of HE development and that the presence of one or more liver toxins may aggravate the severity of the disease progression.

Risk of injuries before and after a diagnosis of cirrhosis: A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Cirrhosis is often asymptomatic prior to decompensation. Still, cognitive impairment and sarcopenia may be present before decompensation, possibly increasing the risk of injuries. We estimated the risk of injuries during the period shortly before and after cirrhosis diagnosis.

METHODS

All patients (N=59,329) with a diagnosis of cirrhosis from 1997 to 2019 were identified from the Swedish National Patient Register. We used a self-controlled case series design to compare the incidence rates (IR) of injuries during a "diagnostic period" (within 3 months before or after the cirrhosis diagnosis date) to a self-controlled "prediagnostic period" (the same 6 calendar months 3 years before diagnosis), using conditional Poisson regression. Injuries were ascertained from the National Patient Register.

RESULTS

We identified 23,733 (40.0%) patients with compensated and 35,595 (60.0%) with decompensated cirrhosis. There were 975 injuries (IR 2.8/1000 person-months) during the prediagnostic period, and 3610 injuries (IR 11.6/1000 person-months) identified during the diagnostic period. The IR ratio was 8.1 (95% CI 7.5-8.7) comparing the diagnostic period with the prediagnostic period. For patients with compensated cirrhosis, the risk increment of injuries was highest just before the diagnosis of cirrhosis, whereas the risk increase was highest shortly after the diagnosis for those with decompensation.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of injuries increases shortly before and after the diagnosis of cirrhosis. These findings indicate that cirrhosis is frequently diagnosed in conjunction with an injury, and highlight the need for injury prevention after cirrhosis diagnosis, especially in patients with decompensation.

Predicting which patients with cirrhosis will develop overt hepatic encephalopathy: Beyond psychometric testing

It remains challenging to identify covert hepatic encephalopathy and predict progression to overt hepatic encephalopathy. Psychometric testing is a widely used diagnostic modality, but it is often inaccurate and difficult to implement in diverse populations, making it a less than ideal assessment. Alternatively, by using easily accessible data from the electronic health record, simple clinical assessment tools, and patient-reported outcomes, we may be better able to predict hepatic encephalopathy across multiple populations. Furthermore, incorporation of patient-reported outcomes into our diagnostic toolset not only aids detection of covert hepatic encephalopathy and prediction of overt hepatic encephalopathy, but also allows us to target therapies and track their impact. Herein, we outline a potential algorithm based on these easily integrated tools to promote patient risk-stratification and early therapeutic intervention.

Enhanced BDNF and TrkB Activation Enhance GABA Neurotransmission in Cerebellum in Hyperammonemia

Background: Hyperammonemia is a main contributor to minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) in cirrhotic patients. Hyperammonemic rats reproduce the motor incoordination of MHE patients, which is due to enhanced GABAergic neurotransmission in the cerebellum as a consequence of neuroinflammation. In hyperammonemic rats, neuroinflammation increases BDNF by activating the TNFR1–S1PR2–CCR2 pathway. (1) Identify mechanisms enhancing GABAergic neurotransmission in hyperammonemia; (2) assess the role of enhanced activation of TrkB; and (3) assess the role of the TNFR1–S1PR2–CCR2–BDNF pathway. In the cerebellum of hyperammonemic rats, increased BDNF levels enhance TrkB activation in Purkinje neurons, leading to increased GAD65, GAD67 and GABA levels. Enhanced TrkB activation also increases the membrane expression of the γ2, α2 and β3 subunits of GABA_A receptors and of KCC2. Moreover, enhanced TrkB activation in activated astrocytes increases the membrane expression of GAT3 and NKCC1. These changes are reversed by blocking TrkB or the TNFR1–SP1PR2–CCL2–CCR2–BDNF–TrkB pathway. Hyperammonemia-induced neuroinflammation increases BDNF and TrkB activation, leading to increased synthesis and extracellular GABA, and the amount of GABA_A receptors in the membrane and chloride gradient. These factors enhance GABAergic neurotransmission in the cerebellum. Blocking TrkB or the TNFR1–SP1PR2–CCL2–CCR2–BDNF–TrkB pathway would improve motor function in patients with hepatic encephalopathy and likely with other pathologies associated with neuroinflammation.

Hepatic Encephalopathy-Related Hospitalizations in Cirrhosis: Transition of Care and Closing the Revolving Door

Cirrhosis is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Development of complications of cirrhosis, including hepatic encephalopathy (HE), portends poorer outcomes. HE is associated with hospital readmission, impaired patient and caregiver quality of life, risk of falls, and mortality. Guidelines recommend lactulose as first-line therapy for HE and rifaximin in combination with lactulose for reducing the risk of HE recurrence. Improving post-discharge outcomes, including readmissions, is an important aspect in the management of patients with HE. Approaches focused on improving management and prevention of HE, including properly titrating lactulose dosing, overcoming medication-related nonadherence, and incorporating rifaximin as therapy to reduce the risk of recurrence, as well as incorporating supportive care initiatives, may ease the transition from hospital to home. Strategies to decrease readmission rates include using hospital navigators, who can offer patient/caregiver education, post-discharge planning, and medication review; and involving pharmacists in post-discharge planning. Similarly, telemedicine offers providers the opportunity to monitor patients with HE remotely and improves outcomes. Providers offering transitional care management may be reimbursed when establishing contact with patients within 2 days post-discharge and conducting an outpatient visit within 7 days or 14 days. Several approaches have been shown to improve outcomes broadly in patients post-discharge and may also be effective for improving outcomes specifically in patients hospitalized with cirrhosis and HE, thus closing the revolving door on rehospitalizations in this population.