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Firdous H, Ali A, Zafar MM, Joyia FA, Hamza M, Razzaq A, Uzair M, Ercisli S, Chattha WS, Seleiman MF, Khan N, Jiang X. Nuclear integration of MYB36 and APX-1 genes impart heat tolerance in wheat. Funct Integr Genomics 2024; 24:185. [PMID: 39373775 DOI: 10.1007/s10142-024-01456-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2024] [Revised: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 09/12/2024] [Indexed: 10/08/2024]
Abstract
Elevated temperatures during grain filling stage, exceeding the optimal range by 3-4 °C, not only results in a substantial yield reduction in wheat by 10-50% but activates disease and insect infestation. In this research, we introduced heat-tolerant MYB36 and APX-1 gene cassettes into wheat, employing an efficient Agrobacterium mediated transformation protocol, demonstrating higher transformation efficiency. The study encompassed the assembly of MYB36 and APX-1 gene cassettes, and confirmation of gene products in Agrobacterium, followed by the transformation of the MYB36 and APX-1 genes into wheat explants. We were able to select transgenic plant with various combinations. The transgenic plants with APX-1 gene alone produced medium sized grain and spike whereas with both APX-1 and MYB36 genes expressed individually under SPS and rd29a promoter respectively showed good tolerance to heat at 32oC at grain filling/milking stage and produced relatively bold grains. While non-transgenic plants grains were wrinkled with thin spike showing susceptibility to heat. This research contributes to the broader scientific understanding of plant stress responses and the combined effectiveness of MYB36 and APX-1 genes in crop improvement without disturbing normal nutritional values. The gene integration can serve as a valuable tool in breeding programs aimed at developing heat-tolerant wheat varieties. These findings also advance our comprehension of the functions of heat-induced genes and lay the foundation for selecting optimal candidates for in-depth functional studies of heat-responsive MYB36 and APX-1 genes in wheat.
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Grants
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- RSPD2024R751 This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project (RSPD2024R751), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hina Firdous
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Arfan Ali
- FB Genetics, Four Brothers Group, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Mubashar Zafar
- Sanya Institute of Breeding and Multiplication, School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Sanya, China
| | - Faiz Ahmad Joyia
- Center of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Abdul Razzaq
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Uzair
- Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Sezai Ercisli
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Waqas Shafqat Chattha
- Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Mahmoud F Seleiman
- Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naeem Khan
- Agronomy Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Xuefei Jiang
- Sanya Institute of Breeding and Multiplication, School of Tropical Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Sanya, China.
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Ayala FM, Hernández-Sánchez IE, Chodasiewicz M, Wulff BBH, Svačina R. Engineering a One Health Super Wheat. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 62:193-215. [PMID: 38857542 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-121423-042128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Wheat is the predominant crop worldwide, contributing approximately 20% of protein and calories to the human diet. However, the yield potential of wheat faces limitations due to pests, diseases, and abiotic stresses. Although conventional breeding has improved desirable traits, the use of modern transgenesis technologies has been limited in wheat in comparison to other crops such as maize and soybean. Recent advances in wheat gene cloning and transformation technology now enable the development of a super wheat consistent with the One Health goals of sustainability, food security, and environmental stewardship. This variety combines traits to enhance pest and disease resistance, elevate grain nutritional value, and improve resilience to climate change. In this review, we explore ways to leverage current technologies to combine and transform useful traits into wheat. We also address the requirements of breeders and legal considerations such as patents and regulatory issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco M Ayala
- Bioceres Crop Solutions, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Plant Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; ,
| | - Itzell Eurídice Hernández-Sánchez
- Plant Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; ,
| | - Monika Chodasiewicz
- Plant Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; ,
| | - Brande B H Wulff
- Plant Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; ,
| | - Radim Svačina
- Plant Science Program, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; ,
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3
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Aboofazeli N, Khosravi S, Bagheri H, Chandler SF, Pan SQ, Azadi P. Conquering Limitations: Exploring the Factors that Drive Successful Agrobacterium-Mediated Genetic Transformation of Recalcitrant Plant Species. Mol Biotechnol 2024:10.1007/s12033-024-01247-x. [PMID: 39177863 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-024-01247-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is a preferred method for genetic engineering and genome editing of plants due to its numerous advantages, although not all species exhibit transformability. Genetic engineering and plant genome editing methods are technically challenging in recalcitrant crop plants. Factors affecting the poor rate of transformation in such species include host genotype, Agrobacterium genotype, type of explant, physiological condition of the explant, vector, selectable marker, inoculation method, chemical additives, antioxidative compounds, transformation-enhancing compounds, medium formulation, optimization of culture conditions, and pre-treatments. This review provides novel insights into the key factors involved in gene transfer facilitated by Agrobacterium and proposes potential solutions to overcome existing barriers to transformation in recalcitrant species, thereby contributing to improvement programs for these species. This review introduces the key factors that impact the effectiveness of a molecular breeding program using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, specifically focusing on recalcitrant plant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nafiseh Aboofazeli
- Novin Giti Gene Biotech R&D Center (N.G.G), Imam Khomeini Higher Education Center, Karaj, Iran
| | - Solmaz Khosravi
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Postal Code: 3135933152, Karaj, Iran
| | - Hedayat Bagheri
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, 65174, Iran
| | | | - Shen Q Pan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Pejman Azadi
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Postal Code: 3135933152, Karaj, Iran.
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Trull BN, Sultana MS, Pfotenhauer AC, Stockdale JN, Pantalone V, Zhang B, Stewart CN. Robust soybean leaf agroinfiltration. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2024; 43:162. [PMID: 38837057 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-024-03245-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE A robust agroinfiltration-mediated transient gene expression method for soybean leaves was developed. Plant genotype, developmental stage and leaf age, surfactant, and Agrobacterium culture conditions are important for successful agroinfiltration. Agroinfiltration of Nicotiana benthamiana has emerged as a workhorse transient assay for plant biotechnology and synthetic biology to test the performance of gene constructs in dicot leaves. While effective, it is nonetheless often desirable to assay transgene constructs directly in crop species. To that end, we innovated a substantially robust agroinfiltration method for Glycine max (soybean), the most widely grown dicot crop plant in the world. Several factors were found to be relevant to successful soybean leaf agroinfiltration, including genotype, surfactant, developmental stage, and Agrobacterium strain and culture medium. Our optimized protocol involved a multi-step Agrobacterium culturing process with appropriate expression vectors, Silwet L-77 as the surfactant, selection of fully expanded leaves in the VC or V1 stage of growth, and 5 min of vacuum at - 85 kPa followed by a dark incubation period before plants were returned to normal growth conditions. Using this method, young soybean leaves of two lines-V17-0799DT, and TN16-5004-were high expressors for GUS, two co-expressed fluorescent protein genes, and the RUBY reporter product, betalain. This work not only represents a new research tool for soybean biotechnology, but also indicates critical parameters for guiding agroinfiltration optimization for other crop species. We speculate that leaf developmental stage might be the most critical factor for successful agroinfiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryce N Trull
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
- Center for Agricultural Synthetic Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | | | | | - Jessica N Stockdale
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
- Center for Agricultural Synthetic Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Vincent Pantalone
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Bo Zhang
- School of Plant and Environmental Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - C Neal Stewart
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.
- Center for Agricultural Synthetic Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.
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Mohammad T, Ghogare R, Morton LB, Dhingra A, Potlakayala S, Rudrabhatla S, Dhir SK. Evaluation of Parameters Affecting Agrobacterium-Mediated Transient Gene Expression in Industrial Hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.). PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:664. [PMID: 38475511 DOI: 10.3390/plants13050664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Industrial hemp Cannabis sativa L. is an economically important crop mostly grown for its fiber, oil, and seeds. Due to its increasing applications in the pharmaceutical industry and a lack of knowledge of gene functions in cannabinoid biosynthesis pathways, developing an efficient transformation platform for the genetic engineering of industrial hemp has become necessary to enable functional genomic and industrial application studies. A critical step in the development of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation in the hemp genus is the establishment of optimal conditions for T-DNA gene delivery into different explants from which whole plantlets can be regenerated. As a first step in the development of a successful Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation method for hemp gene editing, the factors influencing the successful T-DNA integration and expression (as measured by transient β-glucuronidase (GUS) and Green Florescent Protein (GFP) expression) were investigated. In this study, the parameters for an agroinfiltration system in hemp, which applies to the stable transformation method, were optimized. In the present study, we tested different explants, such as 1- to 3-week-old leaves, cotyledons, hypocotyls, root segments, nodal parts, and 2- to 3-week-old leaf-derived calli. We observed that the 3-week-old leaves were the best explant for transient gene expression. Fully expanded 2- to 3-week-old leaf explants, in combination with 30 min of immersion time, 60 µM silver nitrate, 0.5 µM calcium chloride, 150 µM natural phenolic compound acetosyringone, and a bacterial density of OD600nm = 0.4 resulted in the highest GUS and GFP expression. The improved method of genetic transformation established in the present study will be useful for the introduction of foreign genes of interest, using the latest technologies such as genome editing, and studying gene functions that regulate secondary metabolites in hemp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasnim Mohammad
- Center for Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Fort Valley State University, 113, Alva Tabor Building, Fort Valley, GA 31030, USA
| | - Rishikesh Ghogare
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Lauren B Morton
- Center for Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Fort Valley State University, 113, Alva Tabor Building, Fort Valley, GA 31030, USA
| | - Amit Dhingra
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Shobha Potlakayala
- The Central Pennsylvania Research and Teaching Laboratory for Biofuels, Penn State Harrisburg, Middletown, PA 17057, USA
| | - Sairam Rudrabhatla
- The Central Pennsylvania Research and Teaching Laboratory for Biofuels, Penn State Harrisburg, Middletown, PA 17057, USA
| | - Sarwan K Dhir
- Center for Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Fort Valley State University, 113, Alva Tabor Building, Fort Valley, GA 31030, USA
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Kocsisova Z, Coneva V. Strategies for delivery of CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing to obtain edited plants directly without transgene integration. Front Genome Ed 2023; 5:1209586. [PMID: 37545761 PMCID: PMC10398581 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2023.1209586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased understanding of plant genetics and the development of powerful and easier-to-use gene editing tools over the past century have revolutionized humankind's ability to deliver precise genotypes in crops. Plant transformation techniques are well developed for making transgenic varieties in certain crops and model organisms, yet reagent delivery and plant regeneration remain key bottlenecks to applying the technology of gene editing to most crops. Typical plant transformation protocols to produce transgenic, genetically modified (GM) varieties rely on transgenes, chemical selection, and tissue culture. Typical protocols to make gene edited (GE) varieties also use transgenes, even though these may be undesirable in the final crop product. In some crops, the transgenes are routinely segregated away during meiosis by performing crosses, and thus only a minor concern. In other crops, particularly those propagated vegetatively, complex hybrids, or crops with long generation times, such crosses are impractical or impossible. This review highlights diverse strategies to deliver CRISPR/Cas gene editing reagents to regenerable plant cells and to recover edited plants without unwanted integration of transgenes. Some examples include delivering DNA-free gene editing reagents such as ribonucleoproteins or mRNA, relying on reagent expression from non-integrated DNA, using novel delivery mechanisms such as viruses or nanoparticles, using unconventional selection methods to avoid integration of transgenes, and/or avoiding tissue culture altogether. These methods are advancing rapidly and already enabling crop scientists to make use of the precision of CRISPR gene editing tools.
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7
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CRISPR/dCas9-Mediated Gene Silencing in Two Plant Fungal Pathogens. mSphere 2023; 8:e0059422. [PMID: 36655998 PMCID: PMC9942560 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00594-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnaporthe oryzae and Ustilaginoidea virens are two filamentous fungal pathogens that threaten rice production worldwide. Genetic tools that permit fast gene deletion and silencing are of great interest for functional genomics of fungal pathogens. As a revolutionary genome editing tool, clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) enable many innovative applications. Here, we developed a CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) toolkit using nuclease activity dead Cas9 (dCas9) to silence genes of interest in M. oryzae and U. virens. We optimized the components of CRISPRi vectors, including transcriptional repression domains, dCas9 promoters, and guide RNA (gRNA) promoters. The CRISPRi tool was tested using nine gRNAs to target the promoters of MoATG3, MoATG7, and UvPal1. The results indicated that a single gRNA could direct the dCas9-fused transcriptional repression domain to efficiently silence the target gene in M. oryzae and U. virens. In both fungi, the target genes were repressed >100-fold, and desired phenotypes were observed in CRISPRi strains. Importantly, we showed that multiple genes could be easily silenced using polycistronic tRNA-gRNA in CRISPRi. Furthermore, gRNAs that bind different promoter regions displayed variable repression levels of target genes, highlighting the importance of gRNA design for CRISPRi efficiency. Together, this study provides an efficient and robust CRISPRi tool for targeted gene silencing in M. oryzae and U. virens. Owing to its simplicity and multiplexity, CRISPRi will be a useful tool for gene function discovery in fungal pathogens. IMPORTANCE Many devastating plant diseases are caused by fungal pathogens that evolve rapidly to adapt to host resistance and environmental changes. Therefore, genetic tools that enable fast gene function discovery are needed to study the pathogenicity and stress adaptation of fungal pathogens. In this study, we adopted the CRISPR/Cas9 system to silence genes in Magnaporthe oryzae and Ustilaginoidea virens, which are two dominant fungal pathogens that threaten rice production worldwide. We present a versatile and robust CRISPRi toolkit that represses target gene expression >100-fold using a single gRNA. We also demonstrated that CRISPRi could simultaneously silence multiple genes using the tRNA-gRNA strategy. The CRISPRi technologies described in this study would accelerate the functional genomics of fungal pathogens.
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Noureen A, Zuhaib Khan M, Amin I, Zainab T, Ahmad N, Haider S, Mansoor S. Broad-spectrum resistance against multiple PVY-strains by CRSIPR/Cas13 system in Solanum tuberosum crop. GM CROPS & FOOD 2022; 13:97-111. [PMID: 35652435 PMCID: PMC9176253 DOI: 10.1080/21645698.2022.2080481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Potato virus Y (PVY) is a deadly environmental constraint that damages productivity of potato (Solanum tuberosum) around the globe. One of the major challenges is to develop resistance against PVY. Emerging clustered regularly short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas systems have the potential to develop resistance against PVY. In the current research, CRISPR-Cas13 has been exploited to target multiple strains of PVYN, PVYO, and PVYNTN. Multiple genes PI, HC-Pro, P3, Cl1, Cl2, and VPg genes of PVY were targeted by CRISPR/Cas13a. Multiplex gRNA cassettes were developed on the conserved regions of the PVY-genes. Three independent CRISPR/Cas13 transgenic potato lines were developed by applying an optimized concentration of trans-ribo zeatin and indole acetic acid at callus development, rooting, and shooting growth stages. The level of resistance in transgenic plants was confirmed through double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time quantitative PCR. Our results have shown that efficiency of PVY inhibition was positively correlated with the Cas13a/sgRNA expression. Finding provides the specific functionality of Cas13 with specific gRNA cassette and engineering the potential resistance in potato crop against multiple strains of PVY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azka Noureen
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan.,University Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology (UIBB), Pir Mehr Ali Shah- Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Zuhaib Khan
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Imran Amin
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Tayyaba Zainab
- University Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology (UIBB), Pir Mehr Ali Shah- Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.,National Centre for Industrial Biotechnology (NCIB), Pir Mehr Ali Shah- Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Nasim Ahmad
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Sibtain Haider
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Shahid Mansoor
- Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), A Constituent College of Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Feng H, Li S, Hu Y, Zeng X, Qiu P, Li Y, Li W, Li Z. Quality assessment of Succus Bambusae oral liquids based on gas chromatography/mass spectrometry fingerprints and chemometrics. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e9200. [PMID: 34532912 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Succus Bambusae is consumed as a kind of herbal medicine and natural beverage in China. However, the current quality standards for Succus Bambusae are low and lack safety indicators, which makes it difficult to effectively guarantee its quality. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the identification and quality control technology for the product. METHODS We have developed a set of qualitative and quantitative methods based on gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for the analysis of volatile components in Succus Bambusae oral liquid (SBOL). Combining GC/MS fingerprint analysis and related chemometrics algorithms, with similarity evaluation, Hotelling T2 and distance to Model X (DModX) as criteria, the quality consistency of different batches was evaluated, and SBOL samples from different manufacturers were differentiated. RESULTS Twenty-nine volatile components were preliminarily identified from 40 batches of SBOL samples from six manufacturers, and six Q-markers (Quality Markers) for the SBOLs were discussed and determined using GC/MS. The products from different manufacturers were distinguished using chemometrics. CONCLUSIONS The results showed that the quality of the SBOL samples from different batches and different manufacturers fluctuated greatly, which suggested that research into the raw materials and manufacturing techniques should be strengthened to improve the quality of SBOL and ensure its quality consistency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Feng
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- State key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Shunan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- State key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Yunfei Hu
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- State key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiyao Zeng
- Hunan Zhengqing Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd, Huaihua, Hunan, China
| | - Ping Qiu
- Hunan Zhengqing Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd, Huaihua, Hunan, China
| | - Yuanxiang Li
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Huaihua University, Huaihua, Hunan, China
| | - Wenlong Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- State key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Zheng Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- State key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
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10
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Fu J, Brockman NE, Wickes BL. Optimizing Transformation Frequency of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7070520. [PMID: 34209781 PMCID: PMC8305055 DOI: 10.3390/jof7070520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The transformation of Cryptococcus spp. by Agrobacterium tumefaciens has proven to be a useful genetic tool. A number of factors affect transformation frequency. These factors include acetosyringone concentration, bacterial cell to yeast cell ratio, cell wall damage, and agar concentration. Agar concentration was found to have a significant effect on the transformant number as transformants increased with agar concentration across all four serotypes. When infection time points were tested, higher agar concentrations were found to result in an earlier transfer of the Ti-plasmid to the yeast cell, with the earliest transformant appearing two h after A. tumefaciens contact with yeast cells. These results demonstrate that A. tumefaciens transformation efficiency can be affected by a variety of factors and continued investigation of these factors can lead to improvements in specific A. tumefaciens/fungus transformation systems.
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Wan Abdullah WMAN, Tan NP, Low LY, Loh JY, Wee CY, Md Taib AZ, Ong-Abdullah J, Lai KS. Calcium lignosulfonate improves proliferation of recalcitrant indica rice callus via modulation of auxin biosynthesis and enhancement of nutrient absorption. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2021; 161:131-142. [PMID: 33581621 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lignosulfonate (LS) is a commonly used to promote plant growth. However, the underlying growth promoting responses of LS in plant remain unknown. Therefore, this study was undertaken to elucidate the underlying growth promoting mechanisms of LS, specifically calcium lignosulfonate (CaLS). Addition of 100 mg/L CaLS in phytohormone-free media enhanced recalcitrant indica rice cv. MR219 callus proliferation rate and adventitious root formation. Both, auxin related genes (OsNIT1, OsTAA1 and OsYUC1) and tryptophan biosynthesis proteins were upregulated in CaLS-treated calli which corroborated with increased of endogenous auxin content. Moreover, increment of OsWOX11 gene on CaLS-treated calli implying that the raised of endogenous auxin was utilized as a cue to enhance adventitious root development. Besides, CaLS-treated calli showed higher nutrient ions content with major increment in calcium and potassium ions. Consistently, increased of potassium protein kinases genes (OsAKT1, OsHAK5, OsCBL, OsCIPK23 and OsCamk1) were also recorded. In CaLS treated calli, the significant increase of calcium ion was observed starting from week one while potassium ion only recorded significant increase on week two onwards, suggesting that increment of potassium ion might be dependent on the calcium ion content in the plant cell. Additionally, reduced callus blackening was also coherent with downregulation of ROS scavenging protein and reduced H2O2 content in CaLS-treated calli suggesting the role of CaLS in mediating cellular homeostasis via prevention of oxidative burst in the cell. Taken together, CaLS successfully improved MR219 callus proliferation and root formation by increasing endogenous auxin synthesis, enhancing nutrients uptake and regulating cellular homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Muhamad Asrul Nizam Wan Abdullah
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ngai-Paing Tan
- Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Lee-Yoon Low
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Jiun-Yan Loh
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Chien-Yeong Wee
- Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Azney Zuhaily Md Taib
- Malaysia Genome Institute (MGI) National Institute of Biotechnology Malaysia (NIBM), Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Janna Ong-Abdullah
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Kok-Song Lai
- Health Sciences Division, Abu Dhabi Women's College, Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
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12
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Jekayinoluwa T, Tripathi JN, Obiero G, Muge E, Tripathi L. Phytochemical Analysis and Establishment of Embryogenic Cell Suspension and Agrobacterium-mediated Transformation for Farmer Preferred Cultivars of West African Plantain ( Musa spp.). PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9060789. [PMID: 32599771 PMCID: PMC7357122 DOI: 10.3390/plants9060789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Banana and plantain are among the foremost staple food crops providing food and livelihood to over 500 million people in tropical countries. Despite the importance, their production is hampered due to several biotic and abiotic stresses. Plant tissue culture techniques such as somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation offer a valuable tool for genetic improvement. Identification and quantification of phytochemicals found in banana and plantain are essential in optimizing in vitro activities for crop improvement. Total antioxidants, phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins were quantified in various explants obtained from the field, as well as in vitro plants of banana and plantain cultivars. The result showed genotypic variation in the phytochemicals of selected cultivars. The embryogenic cell suspensions were developed for three farmer-preferred plantain cultivars, Agbagba, Obino l’Ewai, and Orishele, using different MS and B5-based culture media. Both culture media supported the development of friable embryogenic calli (FEC), while MS culture media supported the proliferation of fine cell suspension in liquid culture media. The percentage of FEC generated for Agbagba, Obino l’Ewai, and Orishele were 22 ± 24%, 13 ± 28%, and 9 ± 16%, respectively. Cell suspensions produced from FECs were successfully transformed by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation with reporter gene constructs and regenerated into whole plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temitope Jekayinoluwa
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (T.J.); (J.N.T.)
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
| | - Jaindra Nath Tripathi
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (T.J.); (J.N.T.)
| | - George Obiero
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
| | - Edward Muge
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
| | - Leena Tripathi
- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 30709-00100 Nairobi, Kenya; (T.J.); (J.N.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +254-20-422-3472
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13
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Li G, Hu S, Yang J, Zhao X, Kimura S, Schultz EA, Hou H. Establishment of an Agrobacterium mediated transformation protocol for the detection of cytokinin in the heterophyllous plant Hygrophila difformis (Acanthaceae). PLANT CELL REPORTS 2020; 39:737-750. [PMID: 32146519 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-020-02527-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This is the first report of a highly efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation protocol for Acanthaceae and its utilization in revealing important roles of cytokinin in regulating heterophylly in Hygrophila difformis. Plants show amazing morphological differences in leaf form in response to changes in the surrounding environment, which is a phenomenon called heterophylly. Previous studies have shown that the aquatic plant Hygrophila difformis (Acanthaceae) is an ideal model for heterophylly study. However, low efficiency and poor reproducibility of genetic transformation restricted H. difformis as a model plant. In this study, we reported successful induction of callus, shoots and the establishment of an efficient stable transformation protocol as mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404. We found that the highest callus induction efficiency was achieved with 1 mg/L 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 2 mg/L 6-benzyladenine (6-BA), that efficient shoot induction required 0.1 mg/L NAA and 0.1 mg/L 6-BA and that high transformation efficiency required 100 µM acetosyringone. Due to the importance of phytohormones in the regulation of heterophylly and the inadequate knowledge about the function of cytokinin (CK) in this process, we analyzed the function of CK in the regulation of heterophylly by exogenous CK application and endogenous CK detection. By using our newly developed transformation system to detect CK signals, contents and distribution in H. difformis, we revealed an important role of CK in environmental mediated heterophylly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaojie Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiqi Hu
- The State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingjing Yang
- The State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuyao Zhao
- The State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Seisuke Kimura
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo-motoyama, Kita-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto, 603-8555, Japan
- Center for Ecological Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kamigamo-motoyama, Kita-ku, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto, 603-8555, Japan
| | - Elizabeth A Schultz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Hongwei Hou
- The State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Aquatic Biodiversity and Conservation of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, People's Republic of China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China.
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14
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Thompson MG, Moore WM, Hummel NFC, Pearson AN, Barnum CR, Scheller HV, Shih PM. Agrobacterium tumefaciens: A Bacterium Primed for Synthetic Biology. BIODESIGN RESEARCH 2020; 2020:8189219. [PMID: 37849895 PMCID: PMC10530663 DOI: 10.34133/2020/8189219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is an important tool in plant biotechnology due to its natural ability to transfer DNA into the genomes of host plants. Genetic manipulations of A. tumefaciens have yielded considerable advances in increasing transformational efficiency in a number of plant species and cultivars. Moreover, there is overwhelming evidence that modulating the expression of various mediators of A. tumefaciens virulence can lead to more successful plant transformation; thus, the application of synthetic biology to enable targeted engineering of the bacterium may enable new opportunities for advancing plant biotechnology. In this review, we highlight engineering targets in both A. tumefaciens and plant hosts that could be exploited more effectively through precision genetic control to generate high-quality transformation events in a wider range of host plants. We then further discuss the current state of A. tumefaciens and plant engineering with regard to plant transformation and describe how future work may incorporate a rigorous synthetic biology approach to tailor strains of A. tumefaciens used in plant transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell G. Thompson
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - William M. Moore
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Niklas F. C. Hummel
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Allison N. Pearson
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Collin R. Barnum
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Henrik V. Scheller
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Patrick M. Shih
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Genome Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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15
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Dalton SJ. A reformulation of Murashige and Skoog medium (WPBS medium) improves embryogenesis, morphogenesis and transformation efficiency in temperate and tropical grasses and cereals. PLANT CELL, TISSUE AND ORGAN CULTURE 2020; 141:257-273. [PMID: 32308245 PMCID: PMC7145791 DOI: 10.1007/s11240-020-01784-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Slow callus growth is a barrier to efficient genetic transformation in some gramineous species. A reformulation of Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, with additional magnesium sulphate, potassium phosphate, copper sulphate, proline and glutamine, termed WPBS medium, has been developed which improves all aspects of in vitro culture when compared with MS based media. Embryogenic callus could be produced more rapidly from responsive genotypes of sixteen cereal, forage, model and energy grass species, whether using embryos, shoot tips or proliferated meristems as explants. Three species were not transformed due to contamination or unsuitable explant, but thirteen species were transformed using an identical Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, selection and regeneration protocol, including Avena sativa and Oryza sativa. Readily transformable species such as Lolium perenne, Brachypodium distachyon and Festuca arundinacea and recalcitrant species such as Lolium temulentum and Miscanthus sinensis were reliably transformed, while two new species Phalaris arundinacea and viviparous Deschampsia cespitosa were transformed at the first attempt. It is hoped that the use of WPBS media and this general transformation protocol may help to improve the efficiency of grass and cereal transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. J. Dalton
- IBERS, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
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16
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Asande LK, Omwoyo RO, Oduor RO, Nyaboga EN. A simple and fast Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system for passion fruit KPF4 ( Passiflora edulis f. edulis × Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa). PLANT METHODS 2020; 16:141. [PMID: 33088337 PMCID: PMC7565748 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-020-00684-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) is an important horticultural crop in the tropics and subtropics, where it has great commercial potential due to high demand for fresh edible fruits and processed juice as well as source of raw materials in cosmetic industries. Genetic engineering shows great potential in passion fruit improvement and can compensate for the limitations of conventional breeding. Despite the success achieved in genetic modification of few passion fruit varieties, transgenic passion fruit production is still difficult for farmer-preferred cultivars. Therefore, it is important to establish a simple and fast Agrobacterium-mediated cell transformation of commercial hybrid passion fruit KPF4 (Passiflora edulis f. edulis × Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa). RESULTS In the present study, we have developed a simple and fast Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system for hybrid passion fruit KPF4 using leaf disc explants. Factors affecting the rate of transient beta (β)-glucuronidase (gusA) expression and consequently transformation efficiency were optimized as follows: Agrobacterium cell density with an OD600 of 0.5, 30 min infection time, 3 days of co-cultivation duration and the incorporation of 200 µM acetosyringone into Agrobacterium infection suspension medium. Using the optimized conditions, transgenic plants of KPF4 were produced within 2 months with an average transformation efficiency of 0.67%. The β-glucuronidase (GUS) histochemical staining confirmed the expression and integration of an intron-containing gusA gene into transformed leaf discs and transgenic plant lines of KPF4. The presence of gusA gene in the transgenic plants was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results confirmed that the gusA gene was efficiently integrated into the passion fruit genome. CONCLUSIONS The developed transformation protocol is simple and rapid and could be useful for functional genomic studies and transferring agronomically important traits into passion fruit hybrid KPF4. This study developed a method that can be used to transfer traits such as resistance to viral diseases, low fruit quality and short storage life. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on genetic transformation system for commercial passion fruit hybrid KPF4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia K. Asande
- Department of Plant Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, P.O. Box 43844 – 00100, Kenya
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197 – 00100, Kenya
| | - Richard O. Omwoyo
- Department of Plant Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, P.O. Box 43844 – 00100, Kenya
| | - Richard O. Oduor
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, P.O. Box 43844 – 00100, Kenya
| | - Evans N. Nyaboga
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197 – 00100, Kenya
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