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van der Coelen S, van der Velden J, Nadesapillai S, Braat D, Peek R, Fleischer K. Navigating fertility dilemmas across the lifespan in girls with Turner syndrome-a scoping review. Hum Reprod Update 2024; 30:383-409. [PMID: 38452347 PMCID: PMC11215162 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmae005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Girls with Turner syndrome (TS) lack a partial or complete sex chromosome, which causes an accelerated decline of their ovarian reserve. Girls have to deal with several dilemmas related to their fertility, while only a limited number of them are referred to a fertility specialist and counselled about options of family planning on time. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE This scoping review provides an update of the literature on fertility in girls with TS throughout their lifespan and aims to propose a clinical practice guideline on fertility in TS. SEARCH METHODS Databases of PubMed, Embase, and Web of science were searched using the following key terms: Turner syndrome, fertility, puberty, pregnancy, sex-hormones, karyotype, fertility preservation, assisted reproductive techniques, and counselling, alongside relevant subject headings and synonymous terms. English language articles published since 2007 were critically reviewed. Pregnancies after using donated oocytes and data about girls with TS with Y-chromosomal content were excluded. OUTCOMES This search identified 1269 studies of which 120 were extracted for the review. The prevalence of natural conception ranged from 15% to 48% in women with 45,X/46,XX, 1% to 3% in women with 45,X, and 4% to 9% in women with other TS karyotypes. When assessing a girl's fertility potential, it was crucial to determine the karyotype in two cell lines, because hidden mosaicism may exist. In addition to karyotype, assessment of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) played a significant role in estimating ovarian function. Girls with AMH above the detection limit were most likely to experience spontaneous thelarche, menarche, and ongoing ovarian function during the reproductive lifespan. Fertility preservation became more routine practice: vitrification of oocytes was reported in 58 girls with TS and a median of five oocytes were preserved per stimulation. Ovarian tissue cryopreservation has demonstrated the presence of follicles in approximately 30% of girls with TS, mostly in girls with mosaic-TS, spontaneous puberty, and AMH above the detection limit. Although girls and their parents appreciated receiving counselling on fertility in TS, only one in ten girls with TS received specialized counselling. Unfamiliarity with fertility preservation techniques or uncertainties regarding the eligibility of a girl for fertility preservation constituted barriers for healthcare professionals when discussing fertility with girls with TS. WIDER IMPLICATIONS There currently is a high demand for fertility preservation techniques in girls with TS. A reliable prognostic model to determine which girls with TS might benefit from fertility preservation is lacking. Only a minority of these girls received comprehensive fertility counselling on the full spectrum of fertility, including uncertainties of fertility preservation, pregnancy risks, and alternatives, such as adoption. Fertility preservation could be a viable option for girls with TS. However, the question remains whether enough oocytes can be obtained for a realistic prospect of a live birth. It is important that girls and parents are empowered with the necessary information to make a well-informed decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne van der Coelen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Janielle van der Velden
- Department of Paediatrics, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sapthami Nadesapillai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Didi Braat
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald Peek
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Kathrin Fleischer
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Nij Geertgen Center for Fertility, Elsendorp, The Netherlands
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Yami Channaiah C, Memon SS, Sarathi V, Lila AR, Barnabas R, Raghav D, Bhandare VV, Arya S, Thakkar H, Patil VA, Karlekar M, Kunwar A, Bandgar T. 46,XX aromatase deficiency: A single-center experience with the varied spectrum and recurrent variants, and a systematic review of hormonal parameters. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2024; 85:48-55. [PMID: 37348676 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2023.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aromatase deficiency is a rare disorder, with only a few cases reported in India. We describe a single-center experience in western India, with a systematic review of genetically proven 46,XX aromatase deficiency patients to evaluate hormonal parameters. METHODS Retrospective review of case records, collating phenotypic and genotypic data and molecular modeling. Systematic review of 46,XX aromatase deficiency, analyzing data on gonadotropins, estrogen and androgens. RESULTS In the seven patients from our center, presentation was frequent in childhood or adolescence (4/7: delayed puberty or hyperandrogenism), with maternal virilization (4/7), predominance of Prader III/IV (5/7), and initial rearing as females (6/7). Three patients had hypoplastic ovaries. One patient had spontaneous regular menses. We report three novel (p.Arg115Pro, p.Arg192Pro, and c.145+1_145+4delins) and two recurrent variants (p.Val370Met, and c.145+1_145+4delins) in western and northern India, respectively. On systematic review (n=43), gonadotropins were elevated (FSH>LH) across ages (except preterm infants), androgens were elevated in about one-third of cases during childhood and puberty, and estradiol was lower than in controls in mini-puberty and puberty. Spontaneous thelarche and streak ovaries were significantly more frequent in patients with non-truncating and truncating variants, respectively. CONCLUSION We report uncommon presentations with possible founder variants, and highlight hormonal parameters across ages. Serum FSH levels were elevated except in preterms, and can be used as a diagnostic marker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chethan Yami Channaiah
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Saba Samad Memon
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Vijaya Sarathi
- Department of Endocrinology, Vydehi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, 560066 Bengaluru, India
| | - Anurag Ranjan Lila
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India.
| | - Rohit Barnabas
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Darpan Raghav
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
| | | | - Sneha Arya
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Hemangini Thakkar
- Department of Radiology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, India
| | - Virendra Ashokrao Patil
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Manjiri Karlekar
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
| | - Ambarish Kunwar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
| | - Tushar Bandgar
- Department of Endocrinology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Parel, 400012 Mumbai, India
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Bollig KJ, Mainigi M, Senapati S, Lin AE, Levitsky LL, Bamba V. Turner syndrome: fertility counselling in childhood and through the reproductive lifespan. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2023; 30:16-26. [PMID: 36437755 DOI: 10.1097/med.0000000000000784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The potential for fertility in Turner syndrome has improved in recent years. Understanding of associated risks and approaches is important for the care of girls and women with this condition. This review focuses on reproductive health, fertility options and appropriate counselling for women with Turner syndrome and their families. RECENT FINDINGS Women with Turner syndrome have rapidly declining ovarian function beginning in utero . Therefore, counselling regarding fertility concerns should begin at a young age and involve discussion of options, including ovarian tissue cryopreservation, oocyte preservation and use of nonautologous oocytes. Clinical guidance on fertility management and pregnancy risk assessment based on karyotype, associated comorbidities and fertility is still not fully data driven. Realistic expectations regarding reproductive options and associated outcomes as well as the need for multidisciplinary follow-up during pregnancy are crucial to the ethical and safe care of these patients. SUMMARY Fertility care in women with Turner syndrome is evolving as current management techniques improve and new approaches are validated. Early counselling and active management of fertility preservation is critical to ensure positive and well tolerated reproductive outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kassie J Bollig
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Monica Mainigi
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Suneeta Senapati
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Lynne L Levitsky
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Vaneeta Bamba
- Division of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Lee YC, Huang CY, Lin CH, Cheng BW, Huang SK, Yeh SN, Lee YJ, Ting WH. The effects of estrogen induction therapy on pubertal presentations in turner syndrome patients. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 2022; 61:788-793. [PMID: 36088045 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjog.2022.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this study, we investigated various pubertal presentations and progressions before and after estrogen induction therapy and the correlations with Turner syndrome karyotypes. MATERIALS AND METHODS We reviewed the medical records of patients with Turner syndrome diagnosed before the age of 18 years between 2000 and 2019. Sixty-six patients were enrolled and distributed into 45,X monosomy group, X chromosome structural abnormalities group and X mosaicism group. The pubertal presentations were classified into spontaneous puberty, arrested puberty and no spontaneous puberty. All patients' karyotypes, pubertal progressions and laboratory data were collected and analyzed. RESULTS The karyotypes were highly correlated with pubertal presentations. No spontaneous puberty was noticed in 58.3% 45,X monosomy patients, 50% patients with X chromosome structural abnormalities had arrested puberty, whereas 70% patients with X mosaicism had spontaneous puberty. Estrogen induction therapy in patients with no spontaneous puberty could induce puberty and the tempo of puberty may approximate to the spontaneous puberty group (median, 2.3 vs. 2.2 years, P = 0.95). In both interventional groups, the FSH level was distinguishable before treatment (median, 65.1 vs. 100.4 mIU/mL, P = 0.02). After long term estrogen therapy, the FSH could be suppressed to similar level in both interventional groups (median, 37.5 vs 34.5 mIU/mL, P = 0.84). Neither LH nor E2 level provided valuable information before and after treatment. CONCLUSION The karyotypes were highly correlated with pubertal presentations at Turner syndrome patients. The integrity of 2nd X chromosome plays an important role. Low dose estrogen could mimic the tempo of puberty even delay induction age at Taiwan. The FSH data could provide predictive information of pubertal induction for both interventional groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chen Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Taitung Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taitung, Taiwan.
| | - Chi-Yu Huang
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Hsu Lin
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Hsinchu MacKay Memorial Hospital, Hsinchu City, Taiwan; Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Bi-Wen Cheng
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Hsinchu MacKay Memorial Hospital, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Kang Huang
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Taitung Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taitung, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Tamsui MacKay Memorial Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Nin Yeh
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, Saint Paul's Hospital, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Yann-Jinn Lee
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Medical Research, Tamsui MacKay Memorial Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Hsin Ting
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, MacKay Children's Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; MacKay Junior college of Medicine Nursing and Management, New Taipei City, Taiwan.
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R R, Gobalakrishnan N, Chokkalingam A. Detection of turner syndrome using hand X-ray using anchor based links segmentation method. Proc Inst Mech Eng H 2022; 236:9544119221075496. [PMID: 35118910 DOI: 10.1177/09544119221075496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Turner Syndrome (TS) is a chromosomal disorder, wherein the female's growth is impacted. Immature ovaries, low stature, and heart abnormalities are a range of developmental and medical issues due to TS. The condition of TS might be detected prior to birth, throughout infancy or in the early years of life. The diagnosis of TS in girls with modest symptoms and indications is sometimes deferred until they reach adolescence or become young adults. This study presents an algorithm to segment the hand digital X-ray image in children with TS. In medical image and computer vision examination, image segmentation is demanding, and very crucial. Prevailing segmentation algorithms even now suffer from common segmentation issues including under-segmentation, over-segmentation, and spurious or non-closed edges, regardless of the several years of studies. In this paper, Anchor Based Link (ABL) segmentation approach is proposed to detect TS based on fourth Metacarpal bone from left hand X-ray images. The detection of TS is demonstrated based upon the comparison of proposed approach with existing watershed segmentation and Gaussian-Mixture-Model-based Hidden-Markov-Random-Field (GMM-HMRF) method. The proposed approach attains better segmentation based on the ratio of height and width of left fourth finger that is analyzed for normal children and children having TS with the help of edge pixel present in the metacarpal bone that has been segmented. The suggested method is verified on fifty (50) sample X-ray hand images of carpal bones, providing 0.60 ± 0.02 as an average Dice coefficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramachandran R
- Research Scholar, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - N Gobalakrishnan
- Department of Information Technology, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arun Chokkalingam
- Department of ECE, R.M.K College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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Ikegawa K, Hasegawa Y. Fracture risk, underlying pathophysiology, and bone quality assessment in patients with Turner syndrome. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:967857. [PMID: 36325455 PMCID: PMC9618639 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.967857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Turner syndrome (TS), the most common type of X chromosomal disorder, has various, clinical manifestations. Among these, primary hypogonadism, which may lead to osteoporosis, is a life-long health issue. A high prevalence of fractures associated with osteoporosis is a major problem in patients with TS, where it may be 1.4-2.2 times higher than in healthy individuals and increases with age. Among the risk factors associated with fractures in TS, hypogonadism is arguably the most important. Estrogen deficiency due to hypogonadism leads to low bone mineral density (BMD), resulting in a high prevalence of bone fractures. Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) in patients with TS reportedly improved their BMD. However, other causes of low BMD may exist, given that this condition begins in the prepubertal period in patients with TS. Most previous studies have reported low BMD in patients with TS using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), but this method has some limitations. Areal BMD values assessed by DXA were influenced by bone size and short stature, resulting in an underestimation of BMD. Currently, volumetric BMD values may be accurately obtained using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT). pQCT, high-resolution pQCT, and the trabecular bone score can also be used to evaluate bone quality, including bone geometry and microarchitecture, in TS. The present review discusses the high fracture risk, role of estrogen deficiency in low BMD, advantages and disadvantages of various bone assessment methods, and characteristics of bone quality in TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kento Ikegawa
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Metropolitan Children’s Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
- Clinical Research Support Center, Tokyo Metropolitan Children’s Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
- *Correspondence: Kento Ikegawa,
| | - Yukihiro Hasegawa
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Tokyo Metropolitan Children’s Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Pediatrics, Keio University of School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Howard SR. Interpretation of reproductive hormones before, during and after the pubertal transition-Identifying health and disordered puberty. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2021; 95:702-715. [PMID: 34368982 PMCID: PMC9291332 DOI: 10.1111/cen.14578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Puberty is a process of transition from childhood to adult reproductive capacity, governed by the reactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis after a long period of dormancy in mid-childhood. As such, the reproductive hormones are in a state of flux during the adolescent years, and interpretation of both the onset of healthy, concordant puberty and the differentiation of precocious, delayed or disordered puberty, can be challenging. This review is focused on the description of the endocrine axes in healthy puberty and the markers of disorders of puberty that can aid diagnosis and management for patients with these conditions. It will cover the hypothalamic, pituitary and gonadal hormone systems, the dynamic changes that occur during puberty, conditions leading to precocious, delayed or absent puberty and other syndromes with disordered puberty, and the biochemical diagnosis of these different disorders of puberty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha R. Howard
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and DentistryQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUK
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Yuan X, Zhu Z. Turner syndrome with rapidly progressive puberty: a case report and literature review. J Int Med Res 2020; 48:300060519896914. [PMID: 32357117 PMCID: PMC7221220 DOI: 10.1177/0300060519896914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This report describes a clinically rare and atypical case of
46,X,idic(X)(q21.32)/45,X-type Turner syndrome with rapidly progressive puberty
development. After 11 months of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone
(rhGH), the child’s height increased. After 18 months of treatment with rhGH,
the child showed secondary sex characteristics. The child was followed up for 1
year after the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics, and regular
menses were still present. This case indicates that modern molecular biology
techniques should be used rationally to further investigate the existence of
X-chromosome translocations and occult chimeras to prevent misdiagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewen Yuan
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ziyang Zhu
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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Bizzarri C, Cappa M. Ontogeny of Hypothalamus-Pituitary Gonadal Axis and Minipuberty: An Ongoing Debate? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:187. [PMID: 32318025 PMCID: PMC7154076 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The fetal hypothalamus-pituitary gonadal (HPG) axis begins to function during mid-gestation but its activity decreases during late pregnancy due to the suppressive effects of placental estrogens. Placental hormones drop immediately after birth, FSH and LH surge at around 1 week and peak between 1 and 3 months of life. The HPG axis is activated in both sexes, but a sexual dimorphism is evident with higher LH values in boys, while FSH prevails in girls. Both gonadotrophins decline in boys by around 6 months of age. In girls, LH declines at the same time as in boys, while FSH persists elevated up to 3 or 4 years of age. As a result of gonadotropin activation, testicular testosterone increases in males and ovarian estradiol rises in females. These events clinically translate into testicular and penile growth in boys, enlargement of uterus and breasts in girls. The functional impact of HPG axis activity in infancy on later reproductive function is uncertain. According to the perinatal programming theory, this period may represent an essential programming process. In boys, long-term testicular hormonal function and spermatogenesis seem to be, at least in part, regulated by minipuberty. On the contrary, the role of minipuberty in girls is still uncertain. Recently, androgen exposure during minipuberty has been correlated with later sex-typed behavior. Premature and/or SGA infants show significant differences in postnatal HPG axis activity in comparison to full-term infants and the consequences of these differences on later health and disease require further research. The sex-dimorphic HPG activation during mid-gestation is probably responsible for the body composition differences observed ad birth between boys and girls, with boys showing greater total body mass and lean mass, and a lower proportion of fat mass. Testosterone exposure during minipuberty further contributes to these differences and seems to be responsible for the significantly higher growth velocity observed in male infants. Lastly, minipuberty is a valuable "window of opportunity" for differential diagnosis of disorders of sex development and it represents the only time window before puberty when congenital hypogonadism can be diagnosed by the simple analysis of basal gonadotropin and gonadal hormone levels.
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