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Carvalho FS, Tarabal VS, Livio DF, Cruz LF, Monteiro APF, Parreira AG, Guimarães PPG, Scheuerman K, Chagas RCR, da Silva JA, Gonçalves DB, Granjeiro JM, Sinisterra RD, Segura MEC, Granjeiro PA. Production and characterization of the lipopeptide with anti-adhesion for oral biofilm on the surface of titanium for dental implants. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:354. [PMID: 39017726 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-04078-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
Titanium implants are subject to bacterial adhesion and peri-implantitis induction, and biosurfactants bring a new alternative to the fight against infections. This work aimed to produce and characterize the biosurfactant from Bacillus subtilis ATCC 19,659, its anti-adhesion and antimicrobial activity, and cell viability. Anti-adhesion studies were carried out against Streptococcus sanguinis, Staphylococcus aureus, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Proteus mirabilis as the minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal concentration. Cell viability was measured against osteoblast and fibroblast cells. The biosurfactant was classified as lipopeptide, with critical micelle concentration at 40 µg mL- 1, and made the titanium surface less hydrophobic. The anti-adhesion effect was observed for Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus sanguinis with 54% growth inhibition and presented a minimum inhibitory concentration of 15.7 µg mL- 1 for Streptococcus sanguinis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. The lipopeptide had no cytotoxic effect and demonstrated high potential application against bacterial biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Souza Carvalho
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Souza Tarabal
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Diego Fernandes Livio
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Luísa F Cruz
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Ana P F Monteiro
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos Ave., 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270901, Brazil
| | - Adriano Guimarães Parreira
- Microbiology Laboratory, State University of Minas Gerais, Paraná Ave., 3001, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-179, Brazil
| | - Pedro P G Guimarães
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos Ave., 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270901, Brazil
| | - Karina Scheuerman
- Restorative Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos Ave., 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270901, Brazil
| | - Rafael Cesar Russo Chagas
- Laboratory of Bioactive and Catalytic Compounds, Federal University of São João Del-Rei, Campus Centro Oeste, Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho St., 400, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - José Antônio da Silva
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Daniel Bonoto Gonçalves
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Campus Dom Bosco, Padre João Pimentel St., 80, São João del Rei, MG, 36301-158, Brazil
| | - José Mauro Granjeiro
- Bioengineering Laboratory, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology, Nossa Senhora das Graças Ave., 50, Duque de Caxias, RJ, 25250020, Brazil
- Dental Clinical Research, Dentistry School, Fluminense Federal University, Mario Santos Braga St., 28, Niterói, RJ, 24020140, Brazil
| | - Ruben Dario Sinisterra
- Chemistry Department, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos Ave., 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270901, Brazil
| | - Maria E C Segura
- Restorative Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos Ave., 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270901, Brazil
| | - Paulo Afonso Granjeiro
- Biotechnological Processes and Macromolecules Purification Laboratory, Campus Centro Oeste, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinópolis, MG, 35501-296, Brazil.
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Khairunnisa Z, Tuygunov N, Cahyanto A, Aznita WH, Purwasena IA, Noor NSM, Azami NH, Zakaria MN. Potential of microbial-derived biosurfactants for oral applications-a systematic review. BMC Oral Health 2024; 24:707. [PMID: 38898470 PMCID: PMC11186162 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-024-04479-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biosurfactants are amphiphilic compounds produced by various microorganisms. Current research evaluates diverse types of biosurfactants against a range of oral pathogens. OBJECTIVES This systematic review aims to explore the potential of microbial-derived biosurfactants for oral applications. METHODOLOGY A systematic literature search was performed utilizing PubMed-MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases with designated keywords. The results were registered in the PROSPERO database and conducted following the PRISMA checklist. Criteria for eligibility, guided by the PICOS framework, were established for both inclusion and exclusion criteria. The QUIN tool was used to assess the bias risk for in vitro dentistry studies. RESULTS Among the initial 357 findings, ten studies were selected for further analysis. The outcomes of this systematic review reveal that both crude and purified forms of biosurfactants exhibit antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties against various oral pathogens. Noteworthy applications of biosurfactants in oral products include mouthwash, toothpaste, and implant coating. CONCLUSION Biosurfactants have garnered considerable interest and demonstrated their potential for application in oral health. This is attributed to their surface-active properties, antiadhesive activity, biodegradability, and antimicrobial effectiveness against a variety of oral microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Khairunnisa
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Jenderal Achmad Yani, Cimahi, 40525, Indonesia
| | - N Tuygunov
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - A Cahyanto
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - W H Aznita
- Department of Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - I A Purwasena
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia
| | - N S M Noor
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - N H Azami
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - M N Zakaria
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
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Dias Barroso FD, da Silva LJ, Queiroz HA, do Amaral Valente Sá LG, da Silva AR, da Silva CR, de Andrade Neto JB, Cavalcanti BC, de Moraes MO, Pinazo A, Pérez L, Nobre Júnior HV. Biosurfactant complexed with arginine has antibiofilm activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Future Microbiol 2024; 19:667-679. [PMID: 38864708 PMCID: PMC11259079 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2023-0271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim: The present study investigated the antimicrobial effectiveness of a rhamnolipid complexed with arginine (RLMIX_Arg) against planktonic cells and biofilms of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Methodology: Susceptibility testing was performed using the Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute protocol: M07-A10, checkerboard test, biofilm in plates and catheters and flow cytometry were used. Result: RLMIX_Arg has bactericidal and synergistic activity with oxacillin. RLMIX_Arg inhibits the formation of MRSA biofilms on plates at sub-inhibitory concentrations and has antibiofilm action against MRSA in peripheral venous catheters. Catheters impregnated with RLMIX_Arg reduce the formation of MRSA biofilms. Conclusion: RLMIX_Arg exhibits potential for application in preventing infections related to methicillin-resistant S. aureus biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Daiana Dias Barroso
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Lisandra Juvêncio da Silva
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Helaine Almeida Queiroz
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Lívia Gurgel do Amaral Valente Sá
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- Christus University Center (UNICHRISTUS), Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Cecília Rocha da Silva
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - João Batista de Andrade Neto
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- Christus University Center (UNICHRISTUS), Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Bruno Coêlho Cavalcanti
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Manoel Odorico de Moraes
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Aurora Pinazo
- Department of Surfactants & Nanobiotechnology, IQAC-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lourdes Pérez
- Department of Surfactants & Nanobiotechnology, IQAC-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hélio Vitoriano Nobre Júnior
- Drug Research & Development Center, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
- School of Pharmacy, Laboratory of Bioprospection of Antimicrobial Molecules (LABIMAN), Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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Yu YM, Lu YP, Zhang T, Zheng YF, Liu YS, Xia DD. Biomaterials science and surface engineering strategies for dental peri-implantitis management. Mil Med Res 2024; 11:29. [PMID: 38741175 DOI: 10.1186/s40779-024-00532-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Peri-implantitis is a bacterial infection that causes soft tissue inflammatory lesions and alveolar bone resorption, ultimately resulting in implant failure. Dental implants for clinical use barely have antibacterial properties, and bacterial colonization and biofilm formation on the dental implants are major causes of peri-implantitis. Treatment strategies such as mechanical debridement and antibiotic therapy have been used to remove dental plaque. However, it is particularly important to prevent the occurrence of peri-implantitis rather than treatment. Therefore, the current research spot has focused on improving the antibacterial properties of dental implants, such as the construction of specific micro-nano surface texture, the introduction of diverse functional coatings, or the application of materials with intrinsic antibacterial properties. The aforementioned antibacterial surfaces can be incorporated with bioactive molecules, metallic nanoparticles, or other functional components to further enhance the osteogenic properties and accelerate the healing process. In this review, we summarize the recent developments in biomaterial science and the modification strategies applied to dental implants to inhibit biofilm formation and facilitate bone-implant integration. Furthermore, we summarized the obstacles existing in the process of laboratory research to reach the clinic products, and propose corresponding directions for future developments and research perspectives, so that to provide insights into the rational design and construction of dental implants with the aim to balance antibacterial efficacy, biological safety, and osteogenic property.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Meng Yu
- Department of Dental Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, 100081, China
- National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NHC Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yu-Pu Lu
- Department of Dental Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, 100081, China
- National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NHC Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Yu-Feng Zheng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
| | - Yun-Song Liu
- National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NHC Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Department of Prosthodontics, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Dan-Dan Xia
- Department of Dental Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NHC Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology & NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing, 100081, China.
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5
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Cerqueira Dos Santos S, Araújo Torquato C, de Alexandria Santos D, Orsato A, Leite K, Serpeloni JM, Losi-Guembarovski R, Romão Pereira E, Dyna AL, Lopes Barboza MG, Fernandes Arakawa MH, Pires Bitencourt JA, da Cruz Silva S, da Silva Sá GC, Dias Rodrigues P, Quintella CM, Faccin-Galhardi LC. Production and characterization of rhamnolipids by Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated in the Amazon region, and potential antiviral, antitumor, and antimicrobial activity. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4629. [PMID: 38472312 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54828-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Biosurfactants encompass structurally and chemically diverse molecules with surface active properties, and a broad industrial deployment, including pharmaceuticals. The interest is growing mainly for the low toxicity, biodegradability, and production from renewable sources. In this work, the optimized biosurfactant production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa BM02, isolated from the soil of a mining area in the Brazilian Amazon region was assessed, in addition to its antiviral, antitumor, and antimicrobial activities. The optimal conditions for biosurfactant production were determined using a factorial design, which showed the best yield (2.28 mg/mL) at 25 °C, pH 5, and 1% glycerol. The biosurfactant obtained was characterized as a mixture of rhamnolipids with virucidal properties against Herpes Simplex Virus, Coronavirus, and Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in addition to antimicrobial properties against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecium), at 50 µg/mL. The antitumor activity of BS (12.5 µg/mL) was also demonstrated, with potential selectivity in reducing the proliferation of breast tumor cells, after 1 min of exposure. These results demonstrate the importance of studying the interconnection between cultivation conditions and properties of industrially important compounds, such as rhamnolipid-type biosurfactant from P. aeruginosa BM02, a promising and sustainable alternative in the development of new antiviral, antitumor, and antimicrobial prototypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidnei Cerqueira Dos Santos
- Biology College, Federal University of Southern and Southeast Pará (Unifesspa), Marabá, PA, 68500-000, Brazil.
| | - Chayenna Araújo Torquato
- Biology College, Federal University of Southern and Southeast Pará (Unifesspa), Marabá, PA, 68500-000, Brazil
| | | | - Alexandre Orsato
- Department of Chemistry, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Karoline Leite
- Department of Chemistry, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Juliana Mara Serpeloni
- Department of General Biology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil
| | | | - Erica Romão Pereira
- Department of General Biology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - André Luiz Dyna
- Department of Microbiology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Sebastião da Cruz Silva
- Chemistry College, Federal University of Southern and Southeast Pará (Unifesspa), Marabá, PA, 68500-000, Brazil
| | - Giulian César da Silva Sá
- Biology College, Federal University of Southern and Southeast Pará (Unifesspa), Marabá, PA, 68500-000, Brazil
| | - Pamela Dias Rodrigues
- Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, 40170-115, Brazil
| | - Cristina Maria Quintella
- Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, 40170-115, Brazil
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Kadirvelu L, Sivaramalingam SS, Jothivel D, Chithiraiselvan DD, Karaiyagowder Govindarajan D, Kandaswamy K. A review on antimicrobial strategies in mitigating biofilm-associated infections on medical implants. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2024; 6:100231. [PMID: 38510214 PMCID: PMC10951465 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2024.100231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Biomedical implants are crucial in providing support and functionality to patients with missing or defective body parts. However, implants carry an inherent risk of bacterial infections that are biofilm-associated and lead to significant complications. These infections often result in implant failure, requiring replacement by surgical restoration. Given these complications, it is crucial to study the biofilm formation mechanism on various biomedical implants that will help prevent implant failures. Therefore, this comprehensive review explores various types of implants (e.g., dental implant, orthopedic implant, tracheal stent, breast implant, central venous catheter, cochlear implant, urinary catheter, intraocular lens, and heart valve) and medical devices (hemodialyzer and pacemaker) in use. In addition, the mechanism of biofilm formation on those implants, and their pathogenesis were discussed. Furthermore, this article critically reviews various approaches in combating implant-associated infections, with a special emphasis on novel non-antibiotic alternatives to mitigate biofilm infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lohita Kadirvelu
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sowmiya Sri Sivaramalingam
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Deepsikha Jothivel
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Dhivia Dharshika Chithiraiselvan
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Kumaravel Kandaswamy
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
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Hussain B, Simm R, Bueno J, Giannettou S, Naemi AO, Lyngstadaas SP, Haugen HJ. Biofouling on titanium implants: a novel formulation of poloxamer and peroxide for in situ removal of pellicle and multi-species oral biofilm. Regen Biomater 2024; 11:rbae014. [PMID: 38435376 PMCID: PMC10907064 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbae014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Eradicating biofouling from implant surfaces is essential in treating peri-implant infections, as it directly addresses the microbial source for infection and inflammation around dental implants. This controlled laboratory study examines the effectiveness of the four commercially available debridement solutions '(EDTA (Prefgel®), NaOCl (Perisolv®), H2O2 (Sigma-Aldrich) and Chlorhexidine (GUM® Paroex®))' in removing the acquired pellicle, preventing pellicle re-formation and removing of a multi-species oral biofilm growing on a titanium implant surface, and compare the results with the effect of a novel formulation of a peroxide-activated 'Poloxamer gel (Nubone® Clean)'. Evaluation of pellicle removal and re-formation was conducted using scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to assess the surface morphology, elemental composition and chemical surface composition. Hydrophilicity was assessed through contact angle measurements. The multi-species biofilm model included Streptococcus oralis, Fusobacterium nucleatum and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, reflecting the natural oral microbiome's complexity. Biofilm biomass was quantified using safranin staining, biofilm viability was evaluated using confocal laser scanning microscopy, and SEM was used for morphological analyses of the biofilm. Results indicated that while no single agent completely eradicated the biofilm, the 'Poloxamer gel' activated with 'H2O2' exhibited promising results. It minimized re-contamination of the pellicle by significantly lowering the contact angle, indicating enhanced hydrophilicity. This combination also showed a notable reduction in carbon contaminants, suggesting the effective removal of organic residues from the titanium surface, in addition to effectively reducing viable bacterial counts. In conclusion, the 'Poloxamer gel + H2O2' combination emerged as a promising chemical decontamination strategy for peri-implant diseases. It underlines the importance of tailoring treatment methods to the unique microbial challenges in peri-implant diseases and the necessity of combining chemical decontaminating strategies with established mechanical cleaning procedures for optimal management of peri-implant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Badra Hussain
- Department of Biomaterials, Institute of Clinical Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Roger Simm
- Institute of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jaime Bueno
- Department of Biomaterials, Institute of Clinical Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Section of the Postgraduate program in Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, Complutense University, Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Savvas Giannettou
- Department of Biomaterials, Institute of Clinical Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Håvard Jostein Haugen
- Department of Biomaterials, Institute of Clinical Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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8
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Wu H, Chen X, Kong L, Liu P. Mechanical and Biological Properties of Titanium and Its Alloys for Oral Implant with Preparation Techniques: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:6860. [PMID: 37959457 PMCID: PMC10649385 DOI: 10.3390/ma16216860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Dental implants have revolutionised restorative dentistry, offering patients a natural-looking and durable solution to replace missing or severely damaged teeth. Titanium and its alloys have emerged as the gold standard among the various materials available due to their exceptional properties. One of the critical advantages of titanium and its alloys is their remarkable biocompatibility which ensures minimal adverse reactions within the human body. Furthermore, they exhibit outstanding corrosion resistance ensuring the longevity of the implant. Their mechanical properties, including hardness, tensile strength, yield strength, and fatigue strength, align perfectly with the demanding requirements of dental implants, guaranteeing the restoration's functionality and durability. This narrative review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the manufacturing techniques employed for titanium and its alloy dental implants while shedding light on their intrinsic properties. It also presents crucial proof-of-concept examples, offering tangible evidence of these materials' effectiveness in clinical applications. However, despite their numerous advantages, certain limitations still exist necessitating ongoing research and development efforts. This review will briefly touch upon these restrictions and explore the evolving trends likely to shape the future of titanium and its alloy dental implants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ping Liu
- School of Materials and Chemistry, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China; (H.W.); (X.C.); (L.K.)
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9
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Zhai S, Tian Y, Shi X, Liu Y, You J, Yang Z, Wu Y, Chu S. Overview of strategies to improve the antibacterial property of dental implants. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1267128. [PMID: 37829564 PMCID: PMC10565119 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1267128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing number of peri-implant diseases and the unsatisfactory results of conventional treatment are causing great concern to patients and medical staff. The effective removal of plaque which is one of the key causes of peri-implant disease from the surface of implants has become one of the main problems to be solved urgently in the field of peri-implant disease prevention and treatment. In recent years, with the advancement of materials science and pharmacology, a lot of research has been conducted to enhance the implant antimicrobial properties, including the addition of antimicrobial coatings on the implant surface, the adjustment of implant surface topography, and the development of new implant materials, and significant progress has been made in various aspects. Antimicrobial materials have shown promising applications in the prevention of peri-implant diseases, but meanwhile, there are some shortcomings, which leads to the lack of clinical widespread use of antimicrobial materials. This paper summarizes the research on antimicrobial materials applied to implants in recent years and presents an outlook on the future development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Shunli Chu
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Tooth Development and Bone Remodeling, Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Tambone E, Ceresa C, Marchetti A, Chiera S, Anesi A, Nollo G, Caola I, Bosetti M, Fracchia L, Ghensi P, Tessarolo F. Rhamnolipid 89 Biosurfactant Is Effective against Streptococcus oralis Biofilm and Preserves Osteoblast Behavior: Perspectives in Dental Implantology. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14014. [PMID: 37762317 PMCID: PMC10530769 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm-related peri-implant diseases represent the major complication for osteointegrated dental implants, requiring complex treatments or implant removal. Microbial biosurfactants emerged as new antibiofilm coating agents for implantable devices thanks to their high biocompatibility. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of the rhamnolipid 89 biosurfactant (R89BS) in limiting Streptococcus oralis biofilm formation and dislodging sessile cells from medical grade titanium, but preserving adhesion and proliferation of human osteoblasts. The inhibitory activity of a R89BS coating on S. oralis biofilm formation was assayed by quantifying biofilm biomass and microbial cells on titanium discs incubated up to 72 h. R89BS dispersal activity was addressed by measuring residual biomass of pre-formed biofilms after rhamnolipid treatment up to 24 h. Adhesion and proliferation of human primary osteoblasts on R89BS-coated titanium were evaluated by cell count and adenosine-triphosphate quantification, while cell differentiation was studied by measuring alkaline phosphatase activity and observing mineral deposition. Results showed that R89BS coating inhibited S. oralis biofilm formation by 80% at 72 h and dislodged 63-86% of pre-formed biofilms in 24 h according to concentration. No change in the adhesion of human osteoblasts was observed, whereas proliferation was reduced accompanied by an increase in cell differentiation. R89BS effectively counteracts S. oralis biofilm formation on titanium and preserves overall osteoblasts behavior representing a promising preventive strategy against biofilm-related peri-implant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Tambone
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (S.C.); (G.N.); (F.T.)
| | - Chiara Ceresa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Alice Marchetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Silvia Chiera
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (S.C.); (G.N.); (F.T.)
| | - Adriano Anesi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari, 38122 Trento, Italy; (A.A.); (I.C.)
| | - Giandomenico Nollo
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (S.C.); (G.N.); (F.T.)
| | - Iole Caola
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari, 38122 Trento, Italy; (A.A.); (I.C.)
| | - Michela Bosetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Letizia Fracchia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Paolo Ghensi
- Department CIBIO, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy;
| | - Francesco Tessarolo
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (S.C.); (G.N.); (F.T.)
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11
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Crivello G, Fracchia L, Ciardelli G, Boffito M, Mattu C. In Vitro Models of Bacterial Biofilms: Innovative Tools to Improve Understanding and Treatment of Infections. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:nano13050904. [PMID: 36903781 PMCID: PMC10004855 DOI: 10.3390/nano13050904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial infections are a growing concern to the health care systems. Bacteria in the human body are often found embedded in a dense 3D structure, the biofilm, which makes their eradication even more challenging. Indeed, bacteria in biofilm are protected from external hazards and are more prone to develop antibiotic resistance. Moreover, biofilms are highly heterogeneous, with properties dependent on the bacteria species, the anatomic localization, and the nutrient/flow conditions. Therefore, antibiotic screening and testing would strongly benefit from reliable in vitro models of bacterial biofilms. This review article summarizes the main features of biofilms, with particular focus on parameters affecting biofilm composition and mechanical properties. Moreover, a thorough overview of the in vitro biofilm models recently developed is presented, focusing on both traditional and advanced approaches. Static, dynamic, and microcosm models are described, and their main features, advantages, and disadvantages are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Crivello
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
| | - L. Fracchia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, Largo Donegani 2, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - G. Ciardelli
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - M. Boffito
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
| | - C. Mattu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
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12
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Gill SP, Hunter WR, Coulson LE, Banat IM, Schelker J. Synthetic and biological surfactant effects on freshwater biofilm community composition and metabolic activity. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:6847-6859. [PMID: 36121483 PMCID: PMC9529700 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12179-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Surfactants are used to control microbial biofilms in industrial and medical settings. Their known toxicity on aquatic biota, and their longevity in the environment, has encouraged research on biodegradable alternatives such as rhamnolipids. While previous research has investigated the effects of biological surfactants on single species biofilms, there remains a lack of information regarding the effects of synthetic and biological surfactants in freshwater ecosystems. We conducted a mesocosm experiment to test how the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and the biological surfactant rhamnolipid altered community composition and metabolic activity of freshwater biofilms. Biofilms were cultured in the flumes using lake water from Lake Lunz in Austria, under high (300 ppm) and low (150 ppm) concentrations of either surfactant over a four-week period. Our results show that both surfactants significantly affected microbial diversity. Up to 36% of microbial operational taxonomic units were lost after surfactant exposure. Rhamnolipid exposure also increased the production of the extracellular enzymes, leucine aminopeptidase, and glucosidase, while SDS exposure reduced leucine aminopeptidase and glucosidase. This study demonstrates that exposure of freshwater biofilms to chemical and biological surfactants caused a reduction of microbial diversity and changes in biofilm metabolism, exemplified by shifts in extracellular enzyme activities. Key points • Microbial biofilm diversity decreased significantly after surfactant exposure. • Exposure to either surfactant altered extracellular enzyme activity. • Overall metabolic activity was not altered, suggesting functional redundancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie P Gill
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Ulster University, Coleraine, BT52 1SA, N. Ireland, UK.
| | - William R Hunter
- Fisheries and Aquatic Ecosystems Branch, Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast, N. Ireland, UK
| | - Laura E Coulson
- WasserCluster Lunz, Lunz am See, Austria.,Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ibrahim M Banat
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, N. Ireland, UK
| | - Jakob Schelker
- WasserCluster Lunz, Lunz am See, Austria.,Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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13
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Lex JR, Koucheki R, Stavropoulos NA, Michele JD, Toor JS, Tsoi K, Ferguson PC, Turcotte RE, Papagelopoulos PJ. Megaprosthesis anti-bacterial coatings: A comprehensive translational review. Acta Biomater 2022; 140:136-148. [PMID: 34879295 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Periprosthetic joint infections (PJI) are catastrophic complications for patients with implanted megaprostheses and pose significant challenges in the management of orthopaedic oncology patients. Despite various preventative strategies, with the increasing rate of implanted orthopaedic prostheses, the number of PJIs may be increasing. PJIs are associated with a high rate of amputation. Therefore, novel strategies to combat bacterial colonization and biofilm formation are required. A promising strategy is the utilization of anti-bacterial coatings on megaprosthetic implants. In this translational review, a brief overview of the mechanism of bacterial colonization of implants and biofilm formation will be provided, followed by a discussion and classification of major anti-bacterial coatings currently in use and development. In addition, current in vitro outcomes, clinical significance, economic importance, evolutionary perspectives, and future directions of anti-bacterial coatings will also be discussed. Megaprosthetic anti-bacterial coating strategies will help reduce infection rates following the implantation of megaprostheses and would positively impact sarcoma care. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This review highlights the clinical challenges and a multitude of potential solutions to combating peri-prosthetic join infections in megaprotheses using anti-bacterial coatings. Reducing infection rates following the implantation of megaprostheses would have a major impact on sarcoma care and major trauma surgeries that require reconstruction of large skeletal defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnathan R Lex
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Robert Koucheki
- Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Joseph Di Michele
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Jay S Toor
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kim Tsoi
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; University Musculoskeletal Oncology Unit, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Peter C Ferguson
- Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; University Musculoskeletal Oncology Unit, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Robert E Turcotte
- Division of Orthopedic Surgery, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada
| | - Panayiotis J Papagelopoulos
- 1st Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
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14
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Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Coating of Dental Implants—Past and New Perspectives. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11020235. [PMID: 35203837 PMCID: PMC8868456 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Regarded as one of the best solutions to replace missing teeth in the oral cavity, dental implants have been the focus of plenty of studies and research in the past few years. Antimicrobial coatings are a promising solution to control and prevent bacterial infections that compromise the success of dental implants. In the last few years, new materials that prevent biofilm adhesion to the surface of titanium implants have been reported, ranging from improved methods to already established coating surfaces. The purpose of this review is to present the developed antimicrobial and antibiofilm coatings that may have the potential to reduce bacterial infections and improve the success rate of titanium dental implants. All referred coating surfaces showed high antimicrobial properties with effectiveness in biofilm control, while maintaining implant biocompatibility. We expect that by combining the use of oligonucleotide probes as a covering material with novel peri-implant adjuvant therapies, we will be able to avoid the downsides of other covering materials (such as antibiotic resistance), prevent bacterial infections, and raise the success rate of dental implants. The existing knowledge on the optimal coating material for dental implants is limited, and further research is needed before more definitive conclusions can be drawn.
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15
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Allegrone G, Ceresa C, Rinaldi M, Fracchia L. Diverse Effects of Natural and Synthetic Surfactants on the Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1172. [PMID: 34452132 PMCID: PMC8402037 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13081172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A major challenge in the biomedical field is the creation of materials and coating strategies that effectively limit the onset of biofilm-associated infections on medical devices. Biosurfactants are well known and appreciated for their antimicrobial/anti-adhesive/anti-biofilm properties, low toxicity, and biocompatibility. In this study, the rhamnolipid produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa 89 (R89BS) was characterized by HPLC-MS/MS and its ability to modify cell surface hydrophobicity and membrane permeability as well as its antimicrobial, anti-adhesive, and anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus were compared to two commonly used surfactants of synthetic origin: Tween® 80 and TritonTM X-100. The R89BS crude extract showed a grade of purity of 91.4% and was composed by 70.6% of mono-rhamnolipids and 20.8% of di-rhamnolipids. The biological activities of R89BS towards S. aureus were higher than those of the two synthetic surfactants. In particular, the anti-adhesive and anti-biofilm properties of R89BS and of its purified mono- and di-congeners were similar. R89BS inhibition of S. aureus adhesion and biofilm formation was ~97% and 85%, respectively, and resulted in an increased inhibition of about 33% after 6 h and of about 39% after 72 h when compared to their chemical counterparts. These results suggest a possible applicability of R89BS as a protective coating agent to limit implant colonization.
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16
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Tambone E, Marchetti A, Ceresa C, Piccoli F, Anesi A, Nollo G, Caola I, Bosetti M, Fracchia L, Ghensi P, Tessarolo F. Counter-Acting Candida albicans- Staphylococcus aureus Mixed Biofilm on Titanium Implants Using Microbial Biosurfactants. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13152420. [PMID: 34372023 PMCID: PMC8348062 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to grow a fungal-bacterial mixed biofilm on medical-grade titanium and assess the ability of the biosurfactant R89 (R89BS) coating to inhibit biofilm formation. Coated titanium discs (TDs) were obtained by physical absorption of R89BS. Candida albicans-Staphylococcus aureus biofilm on TDs was grown in Yeast Nitrogen Base, supplemented with dextrose and fetal bovine serum, renewing growth medium every 24 h and incubating at 37 °C under agitation. The anti-biofilm activity was evaluated by quantifying total biomass, microbial metabolic activity and microbial viability at 24, 48, and 72 h on coated and uncoated TDs. Scanning electron microscopy was used to evaluate biofilm architecture. R89BS cytotoxicity on human primary osteoblasts was assayed on solutions at concentrations from 0 to 200 μg/mL and using eluates from coated TDs. Mixed biofilm was significantly inhibited by R89BS coating, with similar effects on biofilm biomass, cell metabolic activity and cell viability. A biofilm inhibition >90% was observed at 24 h. A lower but significant inhibition was still present at 48 h of incubation. Viability tests on primary osteoblasts showed no cytotoxicity of coated TDs. R89BS coating was effective in reducing C. albicans-S. aureus mixed biofilm on titanium surfaces and is a promising strategy to prevent dental implants microbial colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Tambone
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (G.N.)
| | - Alice Marchetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (C.C.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Chiara Ceresa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (C.C.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Federico Piccoli
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari, 38122 Trento, Italy; (F.P.); (A.A.); (I.C.)
| | - Adriano Anesi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari, 38122 Trento, Italy; (F.P.); (A.A.); (I.C.)
| | - Giandomenico Nollo
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (G.N.)
| | - Iole Caola
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Azienda Provinciale per i Servizi Sanitari, 38122 Trento, Italy; (F.P.); (A.A.); (I.C.)
| | - Michela Bosetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (C.C.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Letizia Fracchia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale “A. Avogadro”, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.M.); (C.C.); (M.B.); (L.F.)
| | - Paolo Ghensi
- Department CIBIO, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy;
| | - Francesco Tessarolo
- Department of Industrial Engineering & BIOtech, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; (E.T.); (G.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0461-282775
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