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Gray B, Lubbock K, Love C, Ryder E, Hudson S, Scarth J. Analytical advances in horseracing medication and doping control from 2018 to 2023. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 39010718 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
The analytical approaches taken by laboratories to implement robust and efficient regulation of horseracing medication and doping control are complex and constantly evolving. Each laboratory's approach will be dictated by differences in regulatory, economic and scientific drivers specific to their local environment. However, in general, laboratories will all be undertaking developments and improvements to their screening strategies in order to meet new and emerging threats as well as provide improved service to their customers. In this paper, the published analytical advances in horseracing medication and doping control since the 22nd International Conference of Racing Analysts and Veterinarians will be reviewed. Due to the unprecedented impact of COVID-19 on the worldwide economy, the normal 2-year period of this review was extended to over 5 years. As such, there was considerable ground to cover, resulting in an increase in the number of relevant publications included from 107 to 307. Major trends in publications will be summarised and possible future directions highlighted. This will cover developments in the detection of 'small' and 'large' molecule drugs, sample preparation procedures and the use of alternative matrices, instrumental advances/applications, drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics, the detection and prevalence of 'endogenous' compounds and biomarker and OMICs approaches. Particular emphasis will be given to research into the potential threat of gene doping, which is a significant area of new and continued research for many laboratories. Furthermore, developments in analytical instrumentation relevant to equine medication and doping control will be discussed.
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Nelson GR, Mama KR, Weiner D, McKemie DS, Kass PH, Steinmetz SJ, Knych HK. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and antinociceptive effects of buprenorphine following transdermal administration to horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 2024:S1467-2987(24)00078-3. [PMID: 38834387 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2024.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study describes the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, including antinociceptive effects, of a transdermal buprenorphine solution in horses. It was hypothesized that transdermal application would lead to sustained blood concentrations and antinociceptive effects with fewer adverse effects compared with intravenous (IV) injection. STUDY DESIGN Prospective nonrandomized four-part parallel experimental study. ANIMALS A group of eight horses (three mares and five geldings) aged 6-12 years. METHODS Horses were administered incremental doses of 15, 30 and 45 μg kg-1 of buprenorphine transdermal solution and a single IV dose of 5 μg kg-1 of buprenorphine with a 2 week washout period between treatments. Concentrations of buprenorphine were determined in plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and modeled using a nonlinear mixed effects population pharmacokinetic model to determine pharmacokinetic parameters. Pharmacodynamic effects, including changes in locomotor activity, heart rate, body temperature, gastrointestinal borborygmi, thermal and mechanical nociceptive thresholds were recorded. Mixed effects analysis of variance and post hoc comparisons were performed using a Bonferroni multiple comparison adjustment to assess differences in pharmacodynamic parameters between baseline and each time point within each dose group and between dose groups at the same time point. RESULTS Transdermal application of buprenorphine resulted in low systemic concentrations relative to IV injection. Bioavailability after transdermal application was 11%. Thermal nociceptive thresholds were significantly (p < 0.05) increased (4.3-10.7% relative to baseline) for up to 72 hours in the IV dose group, but only sporadically in the transdermal dose groups (2.5-9.9% relative to baseline). Changes in locomotor activity, heart rate and borborygmi varied over time and with dose. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Limited thermal antinociceptive effects were observed at the transdermal doses studied likely owing to limited absorption relative to IV dosing. Future studies may be directed toward investigating antinociceptive effects of higher transdermal doses and different application sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle R Nelson
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Chemistry Laboratory (Pharmacology Section), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Khursheed R Mama
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Dan Weiner
- Pharmacometrics Consultant, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dan S McKemie
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Chemistry Laboratory (Pharmacology Section), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Philip H Kass
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Stacy J Steinmetz
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Chemistry Laboratory (Pharmacology Section), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Heather K Knych
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Chemistry Laboratory (Pharmacology Section), School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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Reed RA, Krikorian AM, Reynolds RM, Holmes BT, Branning MM, Lemons MB, Barletta M, Quandt JE, Burns CC, Dantino SC, Sakai DM. Post-anesthetic CPS and EQUUS-FAP scores in surgical and non-surgical equine patients: an observational study. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1217034. [PMID: 37502312 PMCID: PMC10369185 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1217034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Equine pain scoring may be affected by the residual effect of anesthetic drugs. Objectives To compare pain scores in the hours immediately following anesthetic recovery to baseline pre-anesthetic scores in equine patients undergoing surgical and non-surgical procedures. Study design Clinical observational study. Methods Fifty adult horses undergoing anesthesia for surgical or non-surgical procedures were enrolled. Horses underwent pain scoring using the Composite Pain Score (CPS) and Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP) prior to anesthesia (T0) and following anesthetic recovery to standing, every hour for 5 h (T1-T5). Data were analyzed using a generalized linear mixed effects model. A post-hoc Dunnett's test for multiple comparisons was performed for variables where an effect was detected. Results Mean (95% confidence interval) CPS scores for T0-T5 were 1.6 (1.2-2.0), 6.8 (6.0-7.6), 5.1 (4.3-5.9), 4.3 (3.4-5.2), 3.7 (2.8-4.6), and 2.8 (2.0-3.6) and EQUUS-FAP scores were 0.6 (0.3-0.9), 3.0 (2.5-3.5), 1.9 (1.6-2.2), 1.1 (0.8-1.4), 0.6 (0.4-0.8), and 0.7 (0.4-1.0), respectively. For the CPS, scores greater than 5, and for the EQUUS-FAP scores greater than 3, are consistent with minor pain. There was no effect of type of procedure (surgical vs non-surgical) on CPS or EQUUS-FAP scores. There was an effect of time with CPS scores significantly greater than baseline at T1-T5 and EQUUS-FAP scores significantly greater than baseline at T1 and T2. Main limitations Discomfort caused by hoisting was not quantified and it was difficult to ascertain if this affected the results. Conclusions Post-anesthetic pain scores may be influenced by the residual effect of anesthetic agents for as long as 5 h and 2 h for the CPS and EQUUS-FAP, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Anne Reed
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Anna M. Krikorian
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Rose M. Reynolds
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Brittany T. Holmes
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Megan M. Branning
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Margaret B. Lemons
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Michele Barletta
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Jane E. Quandt
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Charlotte C. Burns
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Stephanie C. Dantino
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Daniel M. Sakai
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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Knych HK, Stucker K, Gretler SR, Kass PH, McKemie DS. Pharmacokinetics, adverse effects and effects on thermal nociception following administration of three doses of codeine to horses. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:196. [PMID: 35614473 PMCID: PMC9131543 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03299-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In humans, codeine is a commonly prescribed analgesic that produces its therapeutic effect largely through metabolism to morphine. In some species, analgesic effects of morphine have also been attributed to the morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) metabolite. Although an effective analgesic, administration of morphine to horses produces dose-dependent neuroexcitation at therapeutic doses. Oral administration of codeine at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg has been shown to generate morphine and M6G concentrations comparable to that observed following administration of clinically effective doses of morphine, without the concomitant adverse effects observed with morphine administration. Based on these results, it was hypothesized that codeine administration would provide effective analgesia with decreased adverse excitatory effects compared to morphine. Seven horses received a single oral dose of saline or 0.3, 0.6 or 1.2 mg/kg codeine or 0.2 mg/kg morphine IV (positive control) in a randomized balanced 5-way cross-over design. Blood samples were collected up to 72 hours post administration, codeine, codeine 6-glucuronide, norcodeine morphine, morphine 3-glucuronide and M6G concentrations determined by liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry and pharmacokinetic analysis performed. Pre- and post-drug related behavior, locomotor activity, heart rate and gastrointestinal borborygmi were recorded. Response to noxious stimuli was evaluated by determining thermal threshold latency. RESULTS Morphine concentrations were highest in the morphine dose group at all times post administration, however, M6G concentrations were significantly higher in all the codeine dose groups compared to the morphine group starting at 1 hour post drug administration and up to 72-hours in the 1.2 mg/kg group. With the exception of one horse that exhibited signs of colic following administration of 0.3 and 0.6 mg/kg, codeine administration was well tolerated. Morphine administration, led to signs of agitation, tremors and excitation. There was not a significant effect on thermal nociception in any of the dose groups studied. CONCLUSIONS The current study describes the metabolic profile and pharmacokinetics of codeine in horses and provides information that can be utilized in the design of future studies to understand the anti-nociceptive and analgesic effects of opioids in this species with the goal of promoting judicious and safe use of this important class of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather K Knych
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Kristen Stucker
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Sophie R Gretler
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Philip H Kass
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Daniel S McKemie
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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Hopster K, Watkins AR, Hurcombe SD. Comparison of cervical epidural morphine with intravenous morphine administration on antinociception in adult horses using thermal threshold testing. Vet Anaesth Analg 2022; 49:417-422. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Hanafi AL, Reed RA, Trenholme HN, Sakai DM, Ryan CA, Barletta M, Quandt JE, Knych HK. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of meperidine after intramuscular and subcutaneous administration in horses. Vet Surg 2020; 50:410-417. [PMID: 33242227 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of meperidine after IM and subcutaneous administration in horses. STUDY DESIGN prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover trial. ANIMALS Six adult horses weighing 494 ± 33 kg. METHODS Treatments included meperidine 1 mg/kg IM with saline 6 mL subcutaneously, meperidine 1 mg/kg subcutaneously with saline 6 mL IM, and saline 6 mL subcutaneously and 6 mL IM, with a 7-day washout between treatments. Plasma meperidine concentrations and pharmacodynamic values (thermal and mechanical thresholds, physiological variables, fecal production) were collected at various time points for 24 hours. Accelerometry data were obtained for 8 hours to measure locomotor activity. Data were analyzed with a mixed effects model, and α was set at .05. RESULTS Meperidine terminal half-life (T1/2 ), maximal plasma concentrations, and time to maximal concentration were 186 ± 59 and 164 ± 56 minutes, 265.7 ± 47.2 and 243.1 ± 80.1 ng/mL at 17 ± 6, and 24 ± 13 minutes for IM at subcutaneous administration, respectively. No effect of treatment or time was observed on thermal or mechanical thresholds, heart rate, respiratory rate, locomotor activity, frequency of defecations, or fecal weight (P > .2 for all). CONCLUSION Maximum meperidine concentrations were achieved quickly with a short T1/2 in both treatment groups. Neither IM nor subcutaneous meperidine influenced thermal or mechanical threshold or physiological variables. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE The short half-life and lack of detectable antinociceptive effect do not support IM or subcutaneous administration meperidine at 1 mg/kg for analgesia in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Hanafi
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Rachel A Reed
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Heather N Trenholme
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Daniel M Sakai
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Clare A Ryan
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Michele Barletta
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Jane E Quandt
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Heather K Knych
- K. L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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