Feasibility, acceptability and impact of integrating malaria rapid diagnostic tests and pre-referral rectal artesunate into the integrated community case management programme. A pilot study in Mchinji district, Malawi

Prehospital use of point-of-care tests by community health workers: a scoping review

Introduction

Point-of-Care Tests (POCTs) are utilized daily in resource abundant regions, however, are limited in the global south, particularly in the prehospital setting. Few studies exist on the use of non-malarial POCTs by Community Health Workers (CHWs). The purpose of this scoping review is to delineate the current diversity in and breadth of POCTs evaluated in the prehospital setting.

Methods

A medical subject heading (MeSH) analysis of known key articles was done by an experienced medical librarian and scoping searches were performed in each database to capture "point of care testing" and "community health workers." This review was guided by the PRISMA Extension for scoping reviews.

Results

2735 publications were returned, 185 were nominated for full-text review, and 110 studies were confirmed to meet study criteria. Majority focused on malaria (74/110; 67%) or HIV (25/110; 23%); 9/110 (8%) described other tests administered. Results from this review demonstrate a broad geographic range with significant heterogeneity in terminology for local CHWs.

Conclusion

The use of new POCTs is on the rise and may improve early risk stratification in limited resource settings. Current evidence from decades of malaria POCTs can guide future implementation strategies.

Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria diagnosis in Cameroon: impact of histidine rich protein 2/3 deletions and lactate dehydrogenase gene polymorphism

Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDT) play a vital role in malaria control in endemic areas. In this study, histidine-rich protein (hrp) and lactate dehydrogenase (ldh) genes were genotyped in Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and Plasmodium ovale (Po) spp. isolates. Deletions in P. falciparum hrp2/3 (pfhrp2/3) proteins and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were analyzed. Twenty-four samples were analyzed for pfhrp2/3 gene deletions and 25 for SNPs in ldh gene (18 Pf and 7 Po spp.). Deletions in pfhrp2/3 genes were observed in 1.9% malaria positive isolates. The pfldh gene sequences showed one SNP at codon 272 (D272N) in 22.2% of samples while in Po spp., sequences were 100% similar to P. ovale curtisi but when compared to P. ovale wallikeri reference sequence, SNPs at positions 143 (P143S), 168 (K168N), 204 (V204I) were found. Findings suggest low prevalence in pfhrp2/3 genes and highlight the circulation of P. ovale curtisi in the studies areas.

Assessing caregivers' perceptions of treatment-seeking for suspected severe malaria in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

BACKGROUND

Malaria remains a major public health issue in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), accounting for 44% deaths among outpatient visits in children < 5 years of age, and 22% of facility deaths. Understanding determinants of caregivers' treatment-seeking patterns and decision-making is crucial in reducing the malaria burden.

METHODS

In the frame of the Community Access to Rectal Artesunate for Malaria (CARAMAL) project, cross-sectional household surveys that randomly sampled villages and households were carried-out in three rural DRC health zones prior to the rollout of pre-referral Rectal Artesunate (RAS) and then 9 and 19 months after RAS rollout (post-RAS). Data were captured electronically through face-to-face interviews with the main caregivers of children < 5 years. Capillary blood samples of the children were tested for malaria and anaemia. The main study outcome was whether caregiver "sought treatment outside home" when the child had fever. Multilevel mixed effects logistic regression models using village as random effect and health zone as a fixed effect was performed to assess treatment-seeking predictors.

RESULTS

2439 household interviews were completed (pre-RAS 888 and post-RAS 1551), including 316 and 653 treatment-seeking interviews. Overall, 3499 children < 5 years were tested for malaria and anaemia (pre-RAS 1,315 and post-RAS 2184). Caregiver's recognition of severe malaria signs was poor, while knowledge of symptoms of uncomplicated malaria seemed high. Despite this, danger signs significantly increased the odds of seeking treatment (aOR = 2.12, 95%CI 1.03-4.38), the same was found for the "least poor" quintile (aOR = 3.01, 95%CI 1.03-8.82), as well as residents of Kingandu (aOR = 2.78, 95%CI 1.01-7.65). "Doing something at home" against fever negatively affected treatment-seeking in both study phases. RAS acceptance was high, at almost 100%. Malaria prevalence was higher post-RAS (45.2%) compared to pre-RAS (34.4%), p = 0.003, but anaemia, although high (≥ 75%), was similar in both study phases (p = 0.92).

CONCLUSION

In remote communities with high malaria prevalence in the DRC, malaria remains a major problem. Improving the recognition of danger signs of severe disease and introducing pre-referral RAS may improve treatment-seeking and contribute to reducing malaria-related mortality among children-if quality of care can be guaranteed.

Acceptability of pre-referral rectal artesunate for severe malaria in children under 5 years by health workers and caregivers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nigeria and Uganda

BACKGROUND

For children below 6 years with suspected severe malaria attending a health care provider unable to provide parenteral malaria treatment, pre-referral rectal artesunate (RAS) is recommended by the World Health Organization to prevent death and disability. A number of African countries are in the process of rolling out quality-assured RAS for pre-referral treatment of severe malaria at community-level. The success of RAS depends, among other factors, on the acceptability of RAS in the communities where it is being rolled-out. Yet to date, there is limited literature on RAS acceptability. This study aimed to determine the acceptability of RAS by health care providers and child caregivers in communities where quality assured RAS was rolled out. This study was nested within the comprehensive multi-country observational research project Community Access to Rectal Artesunate for Malaria (CARAMAL), implemented in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Nigeria, and Uganda between 2018 and 2020. Data from three different sources were analysed to understand RAS acceptability: interviews with health workers during three health care provider surveys (N = 341 community health workers and 467 primary health facility workers), with caregivers of children < 5 years of age during three household surveys (N = 9332 caregivers), and with caregivers of children < 5 years of age who were treated with RAS and enrolled in the CARAMAL Patient Surveillance System (N = 3645 caregivers).

RESULTS

RAS acceptability was high among all interviewed stakeholders in the three countries. After the roll-out of RAS, 97-100% heath care providers in DRC, 98-100% in Nigeria and 93-100% in Uganda considered RAS as very good or good. Majority of caregivers whose children had received RAS for pre-referral management of severe malaria indicated that they would want to get the medication again, if their child had the same illness (99.8% of caregivers in DRC, 100% in Nigeria and 99.9% in Uganda). In three household surveys, 67-80% of caregivers whose children had not previously received RAS considered the medication as useful.

CONCLUSION

RAS was well accepted by health workers and child caregivers in DRC, Nigeria and Uganda. Acceptability is unlikely to be an obstacle to the large-scale roll-out of RAS in the studied settings.

Effectiveness of rectal artesunate as pre-referral treatment for severe malaria in children under 5 years of age: a multi-country observational study

BACKGROUND

To prevent child deaths from severe malaria, early parenteral treatment is essential. Yet, in remote rural areas, accessing facilities offering parenteral antimalarials may be difficult. A randomised controlled trial found pre-referral treatment with rectal artesunate (RAS) to reduce deaths and disability in children who arrived at a referral facility with delay. This study examined the effectiveness of pre-referral RAS treatment implemented through routine procedures of established community-based health care systems.

METHODS

An observational study accompanied the roll-out of RAS in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Nigeria and Uganda. Children <5 years of age presenting to a community-based health provider with a positive malaria test and signs of severe malaria were enrolled and followed up during admission and after 28 days to assess their health status and treatment history. The primary outcome was death; covariates of interest included RAS use, referral completion, and post-referral treatment.

RESULTS

Post-roll-out, RAS was administered to 88% of patients in DRC, 52% in Nigeria, and 70% in Uganda. The overall case fatality rate (CFR) was 6.7% (135/2011) in DRC, 11.7% (69/589) in Nigeria, and 0.5% (19/3686) in Uganda; 13.8% (865/6286) of patients were sick on day 28. The CFR was higher after RAS roll-out in Nigeria (16.1 vs. 4.2%) and stable in DRC (6.7 vs. 6.6%) and Uganda (0.7 vs. 0.3%). In DRC and Nigeria, children receiving RAS were more likely to die than those not receiving RAS (aOR=3.06, 95% CI 1.35-6.92 and aOR=2.16, 95% CI 1.11-4.21, respectively). Only in Uganda, RAS users were less likely to be dead or sick at follow-up (aOR=0.60, 95% CI 0.45-0.79). Post-referral parenteral antimalarials plus oral artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), a proxy for appropriate post-referral treatment, was protective. However, in referral health facilities, ACT was not consistently administered after parenteral treatment (DRC 68.4%, Nigeria 0%, Uganda 70.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

Implemented at scale to the recommended target group, pre-referral RAS had no beneficial effect on child survival in three highly malaria-endemic settings. RAS is unlikely to reduce malaria deaths unless health system issues such as referral and quality of care at all levels are addressed.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT03568344.

Electronic Data Management for Vaccine Trials in Low Resource Settings: Upgrades, Scalability, and Impact of ODK

Background: ODK provides software and standards that are popular solutions for off-grid electronic data collection and has substantial code overlap and interoperability with a number of related software products including CommCare, Enketo, Ona, SurveyCTO, and KoBoToolbox. These tools provide open-source options for off-grid use in public health data collection, management, analysis, and reporting. During the 2018–2020 Ebola epidemic in the North Kivu and Ituri regions of Democratic Republic of Congo, we used these tools to support the DRC Ministère de la Santé RDC and World Health Organization in their efforts to administer an experimental vaccine (VSV-Zebov-GP) as part of their strategy to control the transmission of infection.

Method: New functions were developed to facilitate the use of ODK, Enketo and R in large scale data collection, aggregation, monitoring, and near-real-time analysis during clinical research in health emergencies. We present enhancements to ODK that include a built-in audit-trail, a framework and companion app for biometric registration of ISO/IEC 19794-2 fingerprint templates, enhanced performance features, better scalability for studies featuring millions of data form submissions, increased options for parallelization of research projects, and pipelines for automated management and analysis of data. We also developed novel encryption protocols for enhanced web-form security in Enketo.

Results: Against the backdrop of a complex and challenging epidemic response, our enhanced platform of open tools was used to collect and manage data from more than 280,000 eligible study participants who received VSV-Zebov-GP under informed consent. These data were used to determine whether the VSV-Zebov-GP was safe and effective and to guide daily field operations.

Conclusions: We present open-source developments that make electronic data management during clinical research and health emergencies more viable and robust. These developments will also enhance and expand the functionality of a diverse range of data collection platforms that are based on the ODK software and standards.

Pharmacokinetic Study of Rectal Artesunate in Children with Severe Malaria in Africa

When severe malaria is suspected in children, the WHO recommends pretreatment with a single rectal dose of artesunate before referral to an appropriate facility. This was an individually randomized, open-label, 2-arm, crossover clinical trial in 82 Congolese children with severe falciparum malaria to characterize the pharmacokinetics of rectal artesunate. At admission, children received a single dose of rectal artesunate (10 mg/kg of body weight) followed 12 h later by intravenous artesunate (2.4 mg/kg) or the reverse order. All children also received standard doses of intravenous quinine. Artesunate and dihydroartemisinin were measured at 11 fixed intervals, following 0- and 12-h drug administrations. Clinical, laboratory, and parasitological parameters were measured. After rectal artesunate, artesunate and dihydroartemisinin showed large interindividual variability (peak concentrations of dihydroartemisinin ranged from 5.63 to 8,090 nM). The majority of patients, however, reached previously suggested in vivo IC50 and IC90 values (98.7% and 92.5%, respectively) of combined concentrations of artesunate and dihydroartemisinin between 15 and 30 min after drug administration. The median (interquartile range [IQR]) time above IC50 and IC90 was 5.68 h (2.90 to 6.08) and 2.74 h (1.52 to 3.75), respectively. The absolute rectal bioavailability (IQR) was 25.6% (11.7 to 54.5) for artesunate and 19.8% (10.3 to 35.3) for dihydroartemisinin. The initial 12-h parasite reduction ratio was comparable between rectal and intravenous artesunate: median (IQR), 84.3% (50.0 to 95.4) versus 69.2% (45.7 to 93.6), respectively (P = 0.49). Despite large interindividual variability, rectal artesunate can initiate and sustain rapid parasiticidal activity in most children with severe falciparum malaria while they are transferred to a facility where parenteral artesunate is available. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under identifier NCT02492178.).

Assessing Village Health Workers' Ability to Perform and Interpret Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Malaria 4 Years after Initial Training: A Cross-Sectional Study

Village health workers (VHWs) in Bugoye subcounty, Uganda, provide integrated community case management (iCCM) care to children younger than 5 years for malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhea. We assessed the longevity of VHWs' skills in performing and reading malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) 4 years after initial training, comparing VHWs who had completed initial iCCM training 1 year before the study with VHWs who had completed training 4 years before the study. Both groups received quarterly refresher trainings. Trained interviewers observed 36 VHWs reading six mock RDTs each and performing an RDT as part of a larger skills assessment exercise. VHWs read 97% of mock RDTs correctly; of the 36 VHWs, 86% read all six mock RDTs correctly. Most VHWs scored either 12/13 or 13/13 on the RDT checklist (39% and 36%, respectively), with 25% scoring 11/13 or lower. For reading mock RDTs, VHWs in the first group (initial training 4 years before study) read 97% of mock RDTs correctly, whereas those in the second group (initial training 1 year before study) read 96% of mock RDTs correctly; the first group had a mean of 5.83 RDTs read correctly, compared with 5.77 RDTs read correctly in the second group (P = 0.83). For performing an RDT, the first group completed a mean of 12.0 steps correctly, compared with a mean of 12.2 correct steps in the second group (P = 0.60). Overall, VHWs demonstrated proficiency in reading RDTs accurately and performing RDTs according to protocol at least 4 years after initial iCCM training.

The preclinical discovery and development of rectal artesunate for the treatment of malaria in young children: a review of the evidence

INTRODUCTION

Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest malaria parasite, kills hundreds of thousands of people per year, mainly young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Artesunate suppositories are recommended as pre-referral malaria treatment in remote endemic areas for severely ill children to prevent progression of the disease and to provide extra time for patients until the definitive severe malaria treatment can be administered.

AREAS COVERED

The authors provide an overview of the discovery of artesunate and its different formulations focusing on rectal administration, summarizing key studies concerning the pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, safety, tolerability and efficacy of rectal artesunate leading to WHO recommendation and market authorization in Africa. In addition, studies on acceptance and adherence to rectal artesunate administration and the post-launch status are also covered.

EXPERT OPINION

Efforts by ministries of health in malaria endemic countries together with international health organizations should establish and enforce guidelines to ensure the correct use of artesunate suppositories only as pre-referral medication in presumed severe malaria cases to minimize the risk of abuse as a monotherapy for treatment of uncomplicated malaria. The priority is to not jeopardize the efficacy of artesunate and to prevent resistance development against this valuable drug class in Africa.

An evaluation of rectal artesunate for the pre-hospital management of severe malaria

INTRODUCTION

Severe falciparum malaria stills accounts for around half a million childhood deaths per year in sub-Saharan Africa. Prompt treatment of sick children close to home starting with artesunate given rectally by appropriately trained people can be lifesaving.

AREAS COVERED

Rectal artesunate (RAS) has been developed for use in the WHO approved strategy of pre-referral intervention. This review covers the formulation, pharmacokinetics, safety, efficacy, and implementation of this drug. There is little RCT evidence and the only RCT has been controversial. It is unlikely that there will be further randomized studies in the field. There is a concern that the administration of a single dose of artesunate without adequate follow up therapy may encourage the emergence of artemisinin resistance.

EXPERT OPINION

Artesunate is an essential drug and RAS is a very useful, potentially lifesaving formulation designed to be quickly administered in remote areas to severely unwell children by non-medical personnel. However, its use needs to be monitored and onward referral for definitive antimalarial treatment ensured.

Impact of school-based malaria case management on school attendance, health and education outcomes: a cluster randomised trial in southern Malawi

Introduction

Evidence indicates children who suffer from ill-health are less likely to attend or complete schooling. Malaria is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in school-age children. However, they are less likely to receive malaria treatment at health facilities and evidence for how to improve schoolchildren's access to care is limited. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of a programme of school-based malaria case management on schoolchildren's attendance, health and education.

Methods

A cluster randomised controlled trial was conducted in 58 primary schools in Zomba District, Malawi, 2011-2015. The intervention, implemented in 29 randomly selected schools, provided malaria rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy to diagnose and treat uncomplicated malaria as part of basic first aid kits known as 'Learner Treatment Kits' (LTK). The primary outcome was school attendance, assessed through teacher-recorded daily attendance registers and independent periodic attendance spot checks. Secondary outcomes included prevalence of Plasmodium spp infection, anaemia, educational performance, self-reported child well-being and health-seeking behaviour. A total of 9571 children from standards 1-7 were randomly selected for assessment of school attendance, with subsamples assessed for the secondary outcomes.

Results

Between November 2013 and March 2015, 97 trained teachers in 29 schools provided 32 685 unique consultations. Female schoolchildren were significantly more likely than male to seek a consultation (unadjusted OR=1.78 (95% CI 1.58 to 2.00). No significant intervention effect was observed on the proportion of child-days recorded as absent in teacher registers (n=9017 OR=0.90 (95% CI 0.77 to 1.05), p=0.173) or of children absent during random school visits-spot checks (n=5791 OR=1.09 (95% CI 0.87 to 1.36), p=0.474). There was no significant impact on child-reported well-being, prevalence of Plasmodium spp, anaemia or education scores.

Conclusion

Despite high community demand, the LTK programme did not reduce schoolchildren's absenteeism or improve health or education outcomes in this study setting.

Trial registration number

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02213211.

Adherence to the referral advice after introduction of rectal artesunate for pre-referral treatment of severe malaria at the community level: a noninferiority trial in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

BACKGROUND

The Democratic Republic of the Congo adopted the strategy of using, at the community level, a dose of rectal artesunate as a pre-referral treatment for severe malaria amongst children under 5 years who could not quickly reach a health care facility and take oral medication. However, the adherence to referral advice after the integration of this strategy and the acceptability of the strategy were unknown.

METHODS

To assess adherence by the mothers/caretakers of children under 5 years to referral advice provided by the community health workers after pre-referral treatment of severe malaria with rectal artesunate, the authors conducted a noninferiority community trial with a pre- and post-intervention design in 63 (pre-intervention) and 51 (post-intervention) community care sites in 4 provinces (Kasaï-Oriental, Kasaï-Central, Lomami, Lualaba) from August 2014 through June 2016. The pre- and post-intervention surveys targets 387 mothers of children under 5 years and 63 community health workers and 346 mothers and 41 community health workers, respectively. A 15% margin was considered for noninferiority analyses due to the expected decrease in adherence to referral advice after the introduction of the new intervention.

RESULTS

The mothers acknowledged that the rectal route was often used (60.7%), and medicines given rectally were considered more effective (63.6%) and easy to administer (69.7%). The acceptability of pre-referral rectal artesunate was relatively high: 79.4% (95% CI 75.4-83.3) among mothers, 90.3% (95% CI 82.3-96.8) among community health workers, and 97.8% (95% CI 93.3-100) among nurses. Adherence to referral advice at post-intervention [84.3% (95% CI 80.6-88.1)] was non-inferior to pre-intervention adherence [94.1% (95% CI 91.7-96.4)].

CONCLUSIONS

The integration of pre-referral rectal artesunate for severe malaria into the community care site in the DR Congo is feasible and acceptable. It positively affected adherence to referral advice. However, more health education is needed for parents of children under 5 years and community health workers.

Proximity to a community health worker is associated with utilization of malaria treatment services in the community among under-five children: a cross-sectional study in rural Uganda

BACKGROUND

In rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, health facilities are difficult to access for prompt treatment of malaria. Community health workers (CHWs) have been trained and equipped to treat malaria. Utilization of their service has not been adequately evaluated. The aim of this study was to determine the level of utilization of CHWs, and whether distance and other factors influence the utilization.

METHODS

The authors conducted a cross-sectional study among households with a child below 5 y of age and interviewed caregivers in Sheema district, rural western Uganda. Logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted ORs (aOR) for factors associated with use of CHW services.

RESULTS

Among 547 households, 64% (338/528) reported using CHWs as the first point of consultation for their febrile children. Factors associated with the use of CHWs services were lower asset index (aOR=1.9, p=0.02), mother being the decision maker for site of first consultation (aOR=1.9, p=0.01), distance to nearest CHW of <3 km (aOR=2.1, p=0.03) compared to >3 km, and trust for CHWs services (aOR=7.8, p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Proximal location to a CHW is associated with use of CHW services. Programs should ensure that CHW are well located to enable easy access.

Testing a simplified tool and training package to improve integrated Community Case Management in Tanganyika Province, Democratic Republic of Congo: a quasi-experimental study

Background

Integrated community case management (iCCM) is a strategy to train community health workers (relais communautaires or RECOs in French) in low-resource settings to provide treatment for uncomplicated malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhea for children 2-59 months of age. The package of Ministry of Public Health tools for RECOs in the Democratic Republic of Congo that was being used in 2013 included seven data collection tools and job aids which were redundant and difficult to use. As part of the WHO-supported iCCM program, the International Rescue Committee developed and evaluated a simplified set of pictorial tools and curriculum adapted for low-literate RECOs.

Methods

The revised training curriculum and tools were tested in a quasi-experimental study, with 74 RECOs enrolled in the control group and 78 RECOs in the intervention group. Three outcomes were assessed during the study period from Sept. 2015-July 2016: 1) quality of care, measured by direct observation and reexamination; 2) workload, measured as the time required for each assessment – including documentation; and 3) costs of rolling out each package. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios for correct treatment by the intervention group compared to the control group, controlling for characteristics of the RECOs, the child, and the catchment area.

Results

Children seen by the RECOs in the intervention group had nearly three times higher odds of receiving correct treatment (adjusted odds ratio aOR = 2.9, 95% confidence interval CI = 1.3-6.3, P = 0.010). On average, the time spent by the intervention group was 10.6 minutes less (95% CI = 6.6-14.7, P < 0.001), representing 6.2 hours of time saved per month for a RECO seeing 35 children. The estimated cost savings amounts to over US$ 300 000 for a four-year program supporting 1500 RECOs.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that, at scale, simplified tools and a training package adapted for low-literate RECOs could substantially improve health outcomes for under-five children while reducing implementation costs and decreasing their workload. The training curriculum and simplified tools have been adopted nationally based on the results from this study.

The role of health animators in malaria control: a qualitative study of the health animator (HA) approach within the Majete malaria project (MMP) in Chikwawa District, Malawi

BACKGROUND

Malaria continues to place a high burden on communities due to challenges reaching intervention target levels in Chikwawa District, Malawi. The Hunger Project Malawi is using a health animator approach (HA) to address gaps in malaria control coverage. We explored the influence of community-based volunteers known as health animators (HAs) in malaria control. We assessed the impact of HAs on knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards malaria interventions.

METHODS

This paper draws on the qualitative data collected to explore the roles of communities, HAs and formal health workers attending and not attending malaria workshops for malaria control. Purposive sampling was used to select 78 respondents. We conducted 10 separate focus group discussions (FGDs)-(n = 6) with community members and (n = 4) key informants. Nine in-depth interviews (IDIs) were held with HAs and Health Surveillance Assistants (HSAs) in three focal areas near Majete Wildlife Reserve. Nvivo 11 was used for coding and analysis. We employed the framework analysis and social capital theory to determine how the intervention influenced health and social outcomes.

RESULTS

Using education, feedback sessions and advocacy in malaria workshop had mixed outcomes. There was a high awareness of community participation and comprehensive knowledge of the HA approach as key to malaria control. HAs were identified as playing a complementary role in malaria intervention. Community members' attitudes towards advocacy for better health services were poor. Attendance in malaria workshops was sporadic towards the final year of the intervention. Respondents mentioned positive attitudes and practices on net usage for prevention and prompt health-seeking behaviours.

CONCLUSION

The HA approach is a useful strategy for complementing malaria prevention strategies in rural communities and improving practices for health-seeking behaviour. Various factors influence HAs' motivation, retention, community engagement, and programme sustainability. However, little is known about how these factors interact to influence volunteers' motivation, community participation and sustainability over time. More research is needed to explore the acceptability of an HA approach and the impact on malaria control in other rural communities in Malawi.

Geostatistical analysis of Malawi's changing malaria transmission from 2010 to 2017

Background: The prevalence of malaria infection in time and space provides important information on the likely sub-national epidemiology of malaria burdens and how this has changed following intervention. Model-based geostatitics (MBG) allow national malaria control programmes to leverage multiple data sources to provide predictions of malaria prevalance by district over time. These methods are used to explore the possible changes in malaria prevalance in Malawi from 2010 to 2017.  Methods: Plasmodium falciparum parasite prevalence ( PfPR) surveys undertaken in Malawi between 2000 and 2017 were assembled. A spatio-temporal geostatistical model was fitted to predict annual malaria risk for children aged 2-10 years ( PfPR 2-10) at 1×1 km spatial resolutions. Parameter estimation was carried out using the Monte Carlo maximum likelihood methods. Population-adjusted prevalence and populations at risk by district were calculated for 2010 and 2017 to inform malaria control program priority setting. Results: 2,237 surveys at 1,834 communities undertaken between 2000 and 2017 were identified, geo-coded and used within the MBG framework to predict district malaria prevalence properties for 2010 and 2017. Nationally, there was a 47.2% reduction in the mean modelled PfPR 2-10 from 29.4% (95% confidence interval (CI) 26.6 to 32.3%) in 2010 to 15.2% (95% CI 13.3 to 18.0%) in 2017. Declining prevalence was not equal across the country, 25 of 27 districts showed a substantial decline ranging from a 3.3% reduction to 79% reduction. By 2017, 16% of Malawi's population still lived in areas that support PfPR 2-10 ≥ 25%. Conclusions: Malawi has made substantial progress in reducing the prevalence of malaria over the last seven years. However, Malawi remains in meso-endemic malaria transmission risk. To sustain the gains made and continue reducing the transmission further, universal control interventions need to be maintained at a national level.

Geostatistical analysis of Malawi's changing malaria transmission from 2010 to 2017

Background: The prevalence of malaria infection in time and space provides important information on the likely sub-national epidemiology of malaria burdens and how this has changed following intervention. Model-based geostatitics (MBG) allow national malaria control programmes to leverage multiple data sources to provide predictions of malaria prevalance by district over time. These methods are used to explore the possible changes in malaria prevalance in Malawi from 2010 to 2017.  Methods: Plasmodium falciparum parasite prevalence ( PfPR) surveys undertaken in Malawi between 2000 and 2017 were assembled. A spatio-temporal geostatistical model was fitted to predict annual malaria risk for children aged 2-10 years ( PfPR 2-10) at 1×1 km spatial resolutions. Parameter estimation was carried out using the Monte Carlo maximum likelihood methods. Population-adjusted prevalence and populations at risk by district were calculated for 2010 and 2017 to inform malaria control program priority setting. Results: 2,237 surveys at 1,834 communities undertaken between 2000 and 2017 were identified, geo-coded and used within the MBG framework to predict district malaria prevalence properties for 2010 and 2017. Nationally, there was a 47.2% reduction in the mean modelled PfPR 2-10 from 29.4% (95% confidence interval (CI) 26.6 to 32.3%) in 2010 to 15.2% (95% CI 13.3 to 18.0%) in 2017. Declining prevalence was not equal across the country, 25 of 27 districts showed a significant decline ranging from a 3.3% reduction to 79% reduction. By 2017, 16% of Malawi's population still lived in areas that support PfPR 2-10 ≥ 25%. Conclusions: Malawi has made substantial progress in reducing the prevalence of malaria over the last seven years. However, Malawi remains in meso-endemic malaria transmission risk. To sustain the gains made and continue reducing the transmission further, universal control interventions need to be maintained at a national level.

Qualitative assessment of South African healthcare worker perspectives on an instrument-free rapid CD4 test

Background

Accurate measurement of CD4 cell counts remains an important tenet of clinical care for people living with HIV. We assessed an instrument-free point-of-care CD4 test (VISITECT® CD4) based on a lateral flow principle, which gives visual results after 40 min. The test involves five steps and categorises CD4 counts as above or below 350 cells/μL. As one component of a performance evaluation of the test, this qualitative study explored the views of healthcare workers in a large women and children’s hospital on the acceptability and feasibility of the test.

Methods

Perspectives on the VISITECT® CD4 test were elicited through in-depth interviews with eight healthcare workers involved in the performance evaluation at an antenatal care facility in Johannesburg, South Africa. Audio recordings were transcribed in full and analysed thematically.

Results

Healthcare providers recognised the on-going relevance of CD4 testing. All eight perceived the VISITECT® CD4 test to be predominantly user-friendly, although some felt that the need for precision and optimal concentration in performing test procedures made it more challenging to use. The greatest strength of the test was perceived to be its quick turn-around of results. There were mixed views on the semi-quantitative nature of the test results and how best to integrate this test into existing health services. Participants believed that patients in this setting would likely accept the test, given their general familiarity with other point-of-care tests.

Conclusions

Overall, the VISITECT® CD4 test was acceptable to healthcare workers and those interviewed were supportive of scale-up and implementation in other antenatal care settings. Both health workers and patients will need to be oriented to the semi-quantitative nature of the test and how to interpret the results of tests.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-019-3948-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Household costs and time to treatment for children with severe febrile illness in rural Burkina Faso: the role of rectal artesunate

Background

Community health workers (CHWs) were trained to identify children with malaria who could not take oral medication, treat them with rectal artesunate (RA) and refer them to the closest healthcare facility to complete management. However, many children with such symptoms did not seek CHWs’ care. The hypothesis was that the cost of referral to a health facility was a deterrent. The goal of this study was to compare the out-of-pocket costs and time to seek treatment for children who sought CHW care (and received RA) versus those who did not.

Methods

Children with symptoms of severe malaria receiving RA at CHWs and children with comparable disease symptoms who did not go to a CHW were identified and their parents were interviewed. Household out-of-pocket costs per illness episode and speed of treatment were evaluated and compared between RA-treated children vs. non-RA treated children and by central nervous symptoms (CNS: repeated convulsions, altered consciousness or coma).

Results

Among children with CNS symptoms, costs of RA-treated children were similar to those of non-RA treated children ($5.83 vs. $4.65; p = 0.52), despite higher transport costs ($2.74 vs. $0.91; p < 0.0001). However, among children without CNS symptoms, costs of RA-treated children were higher than the costs of non-RA treated children with similar symptoms ($5.62 vs. $2.59; p = 0.0001), and the main driver of the cost difference was transport. After illness onset, CNS children reached CHWs for RA an average of 9.0 h vs. 16.1 h for non-RA treated children reaching first treatment [difference 7.1 h (95% CI − 1.8 to 16.1), p = 0.11]. For non-CNS patients the average time to CHW-delivered RA treatment was 12.2 h vs. 20.1 h for those reaching first treatment [difference 7.9 h (95% CI 0.2–15.6), p = 0.04]. More non-RA treated children developed CNS symptoms before arrival at the health centre but the difference was not statistically significant (6% vs. 4%; p = 0.58).

Conclusions

Community health worker-delivered RA does not affect the total out-of-pocket costs when used in children with CNS symptoms, but is associated with higher total out-of-pocket costs when used in children with less severe symptoms. RA-treated children sought treatment more quickly.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2526-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Can malaria rapid diagnostic tests by drug sellers under field conditions classify children 5 years old or less with or without Plasmodium falciparum malaria? Comparison with nested PCR analysis

Background

Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) available as dipsticks or strips, are simple to perform, easily interpretable and do not require electricity nor infrastructural investment. Correct interpretation of and compliance with the RDT results is a challenge to drug sellers. Thus, drug seller interpretation of RDT strips was compared with laboratory scientist re-reading, and PCR analysis of Plasmodium DNA extracted from RDT nitrocellulose strips and fast transient analysis (FTA) cards. Malaria RDT cassettes were also assessed as a potential source of Plasmodium DNA.

Methods

A total of 212 children aged between 2 and 60 months, 199 of whom had complete records at two study drug shops in south western Uganda participated in the study. Duplicate 5 μL samples of capillary blood were picked from the 212 children, dispensed onto the sample well of the CareStart™ Pf-HRP2 RDT cassette and a FTA, Whatman™ 3MM filter paper in parallel. The RDT strip was interpreted by the drug seller within 15–20 min, visually re-read centrally by laboratory scientist and from it; Plasmodium DNA was recovered and detected by PCR, and compared with FTA recovered P. falciparum DNA PCR detection.

Results

Malaria positive samples were 62/199 (31.2%, 95% CI 24.9, 38.3) by drug seller interpretation of RDT strip, 59/212 (27.8%, 95% CI 22.2, 34.3) by laboratory scientist, 55/212 (25.9%, 95% CI 20.0, 32.6) by RDT nitrocellulose strip PCR and 64/212 (30.2%, 95% CI 24.4, 37.7). The overall agreement between the drug seller interpretation and laboratory scientist re-reading of the RDT strip was 93.0% with kappa value of 0.84 (95% CI 0.75, 0.92). The drug seller compliance with the reported RDT results was 92.5%. The performance of the three diagnostic strategies compared with FTA-PCR as the gold standard had sensitivity between 76.6 and 86.9%, specificity above 90%, positive predictive values ranging from 79.0 to 89.8% and negative predictive values above 90%.

Conclusion

Drug sellers can use RDTs in field conditions and achieve acceptable accuracy for malaria diagnosis, and they comply with the RDT results. Plasmodium DNA can be recovered from RDT nitrocellulose strips even in the context of drug shops. Future malaria surveillance and diagnostic quality control studies with RDT cassette as a source of Plasmodium DNA are recommended.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2508-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Community understanding of the concept of pre-referral treatment and how this impacts on referral related decision-making following the provision of rectal artesunate: a qualitative study in western Uganda

Background

Successful pre-referral treatment with rectal artesunate (RA) for suspected severe malaria requires operational linkages between community health workers (CHWs) and referral facilities, acceptance of pre-referral treatment and adherence to referral practices by CHWs and caregivers. This qualitative study investigated how community understanding of the concept of ‘pre-referral treatment’ is used in referral related decision-making following provision of RA in Uganda.

Methods

Narrative interviews were conducted with 30 caregivers of children under five who received RA within the previous three months and the 30 associated CHWs who provided the treatment. Nineteen focus group discussions incorporating vignettes from the interviews were held with further caregivers, and 12 with CHWs and women representatives. Twenty traditional healers were targeted for semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis followed a ‘meaning-based’ approach.

Results

CHWs were aware of essential information to be given to caregivers on prescribing RA as indicated by the job aid, specifically urgency for referral, yet there was insufficient emphasis on RA not being a full treatment for severe malaria. Information shared by the CHW appeared to be influenced by the perceived urgency with which the CHW needed to act and the time of day or night the child was seen. Seven of the 32 caregivers did not complete referral post RA administration. Caregivers seemed more likely to adhere to referral advice if they perceived their child’s condition to be severe. Previous caregiver experience and CHW comparisons with Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy (ACT) as a treatment for uncomplicated malaria appeared to raise misperceptions that RA is a complete treatment for severe malaria, thus reducing likelihood to complete referral. CHW implication, or caregiver interpretation, of the need to monitor the child, and some prescription of ACT post RA administration, also confused the need for referral. Both CHWs and caregivers requested further information about the role of RA.

Conclusions

CHW advice should emphasise RA as providing temporary relief prior to facility-based treatment, the importance of referral whether or not a change is seen in the child’s condition, and the dangers of not completing referral. Social behaviour change communication, training and support supervision activities could help promote these messages.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-018-3209-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Pre-referral Rectal Artesunate Treatment by Community-Based Treatment Providers in Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Tanzania, and Uganda (Study 18): A Cluster-Randomized Trial

Background. If malaria patients who cannot be treated orally are several hours from facilities for injections, rectal artesunate prior to hospital referral can prevent death and disability. The goal is to reduce death from malaria by having rectal artesunate treatment available and used. How best to do this remains unknown.

Methods. Villages remote from a health facility were randomized to different community-based treatment providers trained to provide rectal artesunate in Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Tanzania, and Uganda. Prereferral rectal artesunate treatment was provided in 272 villages: 109 through community-based health workers (CHWs), 112 via trained mothers (MUMs), 25 via trained traditional healers (THs), and 26 through trained community-chosen personnel (COMs); episodes eligible for rectal artesunate were established through regular household surveys of febrile illnesses recording symptoms eligible for prereferral treatment. Differences in treatment coverage with rectal artesunate in children aged <5 years in MUM vs CHW (standard-of-care) villages were assessed using the odds ratio (OR); the predictive probability of treatment was derived from a logistic regression analysis, adjusting for heterogeneity between clusters (villages) using random effects.

Results. Over 19 months, 54 013 children had 102 504 febrile episodes, of which 32% (31 817 episodes) had symptoms eligible for prereferral therapy; 14% (4460) children received treatment. Episodes with altered consciousness, coma, or convulsions constituted 36.6% of all episodes in treated children. The overall OR of treatment between MUM vs CHW villages, adjusting for country, was 1.84 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.20–2.83; P = .005). Adjusting for heterogeneity, this translated into a 1.67 higher average probability of a child being treated in MUM vs CHW villages. Referral compliance was 81% and significantly higher with CHWs vs MUMs: 87% vs 82% (risk ratio [RR], 1.1 [95% CI, 1.0–1.1]; P < .0001). There were more deaths in the TH cluster than elsewhere (RR, 2.7 [95% CI, 1.4–5.6]; P = .0040).

Conclusions. Prereferral episodes were almost one-third of all febrile episodes. More than one-third of patients treated had convulsions, altered consciousness, or coma. Mothers were effective in treating patients, and achieved higher coverage than other providers. Treatment access was low.

Clinical Trials Registration. ISRCTN58046240.

Training Community Health Workers to Manage Uncomplicated and Severe Malaria: Experience From 3 Rural Malaria-Endemic Areas in Sub-Saharan Africa

Background. Use of community health workers (CHWs) to increase access to diagnosis and treatment of malaria is recommended by the World Health Organization. The present article reports on training and performance of CHWs in applying these recommendations.

Methods. Two hundred seventy-nine CHWs were trained for 3–5 days in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Uganda, and 19 were certified to diagnose and treat only uncomplicated malaria and 235 to diagnose and treat both uncomplicated and severe malaria. Almost 1 year after training, 220 CHWs were assessed using standard checklists using facility staff responses as the reference standard.

Results. Training models were slightly different in the 3 countries, but the same topics were covered. The main challenges noticed were the low level of education in rural areas and the involvement of health staff in the supervision process. Overall performance was 98% (with 99% in taking history, 95% in measuring temperature, 85% for measuring respiratory rates, 98% for diagnosis, 98% for classification, and 99% for prescribing treatment). Young, single, new CHWs performed better than their older, married, more experienced counterparts.

Conclusions. Training CHWs for community-based diagnosis and treatment of uncomplicated and severe malaria is possible with basic and refresher training and close supervision of CHWs’ performance.

Clinical Trials Registration. ISRCTRS13858170.

Assessing Acceptability of a Diagnostic and Malaria Treatment Package Delivered by Community Health Workers in Malaria-Endemic Settings of Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Uganda

Background. The efficacy of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) and rectal artesunate for severe malaria in children is proven. However, acceptability of a package of interventions that included use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), ACTs, and rectal artesunate when provided by community health workers (CHWs) is uncertain. This study assessed acceptability of use of CHWs for case management of malaria using RDTs, ACTs, and rectal artesunate.

Methods. The study was carried out in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Uganda in 2015 toward the end of an intervention using CHWs to provide diagnosis and treatment. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with parents of sick children, community leaders, and health workers to understand whether they accepted the package for case management of malaria using CHWs. Transcripts from FGDs and KII recordings were analyzed using content analysis. The findings were described, interpreted, and reported in the form of narratives.

Results. Treatment of malaria using the CHWs was acceptable to caregivers and communities. The CHWs were perceived to be accessible, diligent, and effective. There were no physical, social, or cultural barriers to accessing the CHWs’ services. Respondents were extremely positive about the intervention and were concerned that CHWs had limited financial and nonfinancial incentives that would reduce their motivation and willingness to continue.

Conclusions. Treatment of malaria using CHWs was fully accepted. CHWs should be compensated, trained, and well supervised.

Clinical Trials Registration. ISRCTN13858170.

School-based diagnosis and treatment of malaria by teachers using rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin-based combination therapy: experiences and perceptions of users and implementers of the Learner Treatment Kit, southern Malawi

Background

Training teachers to diagnose uncomplicated malaria using malaria rapid diagnostic tests and treat with artemisinin-based combination therapy has the potential to improve the access of primary school children (6–14 years) to prompt and efficient treatment for malaria, but little is known about the acceptability of such an intervention. This qualitative study explored experiences and perceptions of users and implementers of a programme of school-based malaria case management via a first-aid kit—the Learner Treatment Kit (LTK)—implemented as part of a cluster-randomized controlled trial in Zomba district, Malawi.

Methods

From 29 primary schools where teachers were trained to test and treat school children for malaria using the LTK, six schools were purposively selected on the basis of relative intervention usage (low, medium or high); school size and geographical location. In total eight focus group discussions were held with school children, parents and guardians, and teachers; and 20 in-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders at the school, district and national levels. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using a thematic analysis approach.

Results

The LTK was widely perceived by respondents to be a worthwhile intervention, with the opinion that trained teachers were trusted providers of malaria testing and treatment to school children. Benefits of the programme included a perception of improved access to malaria treatment for school children; decreased school absenteeism; and that the programme supported broader national health and education policies. Potential barriers to successful implementation expressed included increased teacher workloads, a feeling of inadequate supervision from health workers, lack of incentives and concerns for the sustainability of the programme regarding the supply of drugs and commodities.

Conclusion

Training teachers to test for and treat uncomplicated malaria in schools was well received by both users and implementers alike, and was perceived by the majority of stakeholders to be a valuable programme. Factors raised as critical to the success of such a programme included ensuring an effective supervisory system, a reliable supply chain, and the training of greater numbers of teachers per school to manage high consultation numbers, especially during the peak malaria transmission season.

Clinical outcomes among febrile children aged 2 to 59 months with negative malaria rapid diagnostic test results in Mchinji District, Malawi

BACKGROUND

Malawi malaria treatment guidelines recommend a definitive diagnosis, using a malaria rapid diagnostic test (mRDT), for all patients with fever or history of fever. Improving the management and outcomes of febrile children with negative mRDT results should be a priority.

METHODS

Through a prospective cohort study designed to investigate clinical outcomes of children treated at the community level, we followed, for 7 days, children aged 2 to 59 months, who had negative mRDT results and were treated with antipyretic medication. Clinical outcomes were assessed on days 3 and 7 post-recruitment.

RESULTS

The median age of recruited children was 19 months. Of the 285 children enrolled, 139 (48.8%) were females. Of the children for whom data were available for analysis, 95/236 (40.3%) had fever (temperature ≥ 37.5°C) at enrolment, and almost half of the sick children (125/268; 46.6%) had symptoms of upper respiratory tract infection. Most sick children (89.6%; 95% confidence interval, CI = 84.2 to 93.3) recovered, while 10.4% (95% CI: 6.7 to 15.8) were still sick by day 7 of follow-up. There were no deaths reported during the 7 days of follow-up. Being afebrile at enrolment (odds ratio, OR = 2.5; 95% CI = 1.1 to 6.0; P = 0.027) and sleeping under an insecticide-treated net (ITN) (OR = 2.7; 95% CI = 1.2 to 6.2; P = 0.011) were associated with recovery by day 7. In multivariable analysis, sleeping under an ITN the previous night was the only factor associated with recovery by day 7. Microscopy did not detect any malaria parasites in the blood of recruited children, at recruitment or on day 7.

CONCLUSIONS

In this community-level study, the majority of febrile children with negative mRDT results recovered within 7 days of health worker consultation for a febrile illness, having only taken antipyretics.

Prototype Positive Control Wells for Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests: Prospective Evaluation of Implementation Among Health Workers in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Uganda

Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are widely used for malaria diagnosis, but lack of quality control at point of care restricts trust in test results. Prototype positive control wells (PCW) containing recombinant malaria antigens have been developed to identify poor-quality RDT lots. This study assessed community and facility health workers' (HW) ability to use PCWs to detect degraded RDTs, the impact of PCW availability on RDT use and prescribing, and preferred strategies for implementation in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos) and Uganda. A total of 557 HWs participated in Laos (267) and Uganda (290). After training, most (88% to ≥ 99%) participants correctly performed the six key individual PCW steps; performance was generally maintained during the 6-month study period. Nearly all (97%) reported a correct action based on PCW use at routine work sites. In Uganda, where data for 127,775 individual patients were available, PCW introduction in health facilities was followed by a decrease in antimalarial prescribing for RDT-negative patients ≥ 5 years of age (4.7-1.9%); among community-based HWs, the decrease was 12.2% (P < 0.05) for all patients. Qualitative data revealed PCWs as a way to confirm RDT quality and restore confidence in RDT results. HWs in malaria-endemic areas are able to use prototype PCWs for quality control of malaria RDTs. PCW availability can improve HWs' confidence in RDT results, and benefit malaria diagnostic programs. Lessons learned from this study may be valuable for introduction of other point-of-care diagnostic and quality-control tools. Future work should evaluate longer term impacts of PCWs on patient management.

Acceptability of malaria rapid diagnostic tests administered by village health workers in Pangani District, North eastern Tanzania

Background

Malaria continues to top the list of the ten most threatening diseases to child survival in Tanzania. The country has a functional policy for appropriate case management of malaria with rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) from hospital level all the way to dispensaries, which are the first points of healthcare services in the national referral system. However, access to these health services in Tanzania is limited, especially in rural areas. Formalization of trained village health workers (VHWs) can strengthen and extend the scope of public health services, including diagnosis and management of uncomplicated malaria in resource-constrained settings. Despite long experience with VHWs in various health interventions, Tanzania has not yet formalized its involvement in malaria case management. This study presents evidence on acceptability of RDTs used by VHWs in rural northeastern Tanzania.

Methods

A cross-sectional study using quantitative and qualitative approaches was conducted between March and May 2012 in Pangani district, northeastern Tanzania, on community perceptions, practices and acceptance of RDTs used by VHWs.

Results

Among 346 caregivers of children under 5 years old, no evidence was found of differences in awareness of HIV rapid diagnostic tests and RDTs (54 vs. 46 %, p = 0.134). Of all respondents, 92 % expressed trust in RDT results, 96 % reported readiness to accept RDTs by VHWs, while 92 % expressed willingness to contribute towards the cost of RDTs used by VHWs. Qualitative results matched positive perceptions, attitudes and acceptance of mothers towards the use of RDTs by VHWs reported in the household surveys. Appropriate training, reliable supplies, affordability and close supervision emerged as important recommendations for implementation of RDTs by VHWs.

Conclusion

RDTs implemented by VHWs are acceptable to rural communities in northeastern Tanzania. While families are willing to contribute towards costs of sustaining these services, policy decisions for scaling-up will need to consider the available and innovative lessons for successful universally accessible and acceptable services in keeping with national health policy and sustainable development goals.