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Hengelaar AH, Verdonk P, van Hartingsveldt M, Abma T. A sense of injustice in care networks: An intersectional exploration of the collaboration between professionals and carers with a migration background. Soc Sci Med 2024; 356:117169. [PMID: 39096534 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/05/2024]
Abstract
This study tries to understand the power of knowledge within collaborative care networks to provide insights for designing successful collaboration within care networks by combining intersectionality and epistemic (in)justice. Becoming an informal carer for someone with an acquired brain injury (ABI) causes a dramatic disruption of daily life. Collaboration between professionals and carers with a migration background may result in unjust and unfair situations within care networks. Carer experiences are shaped by aspects of diversity which are subject to power structures and processes of social (in)justice in care networks. In this study, intersectionality was used to both generate complex in-depth insights into the different active layers of carer experiences and focus on within-group differences. Intersectionality was combined with the theoretical concept of epistemic (in)justice to unravel underlying dynamics in collaborative care networks contributing to the understanding that carers with a migration background are often not seen as 'knowers of reality.' This qualitative study conducted in the Netherlands between 2019 and 2022 incorporated three informal group conversations (N = 32), semi-structured interviews (N = 21), and three dialogue sessions (N = 7) with carers caring for someone with an ABI. A critical friend and a community of practice, with carers, professionals, and care recipients (N = 8), contributed to the analysis. Three interrelated themes were identified as constituting different layers of the carer experience: (a) I need to keep going, focusing on carers' personal experiences and how experiences were related to carers social positioning; (b) the struggle of caring together, showing how expectations of family members towards carers added to carer burden; and (c) trust is a balancing act, centering on how support from professionals shaped carers' experiences, in which trusting professionals' support proved challenging for carers, and how this trust was influenced by contextual factors at organizational and policy levels. Overall, the need for diversity-responsive policies within care organizations is apparent. Carers with a migration background need to feel heard so they can meaningfully tailor care to meet recipients' needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldiene Henrieke Hengelaar
- Department Ethics, Law and Humanities, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUmc and Department of Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Health, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Tafelbergweg 51, 1000CN Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Petra Verdonk
- Department Ethics, Law and Humanities, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUmc, de Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Margo van Hartingsveldt
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Health, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Tafelbergweg 51, 1000CN Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Tineke Abma
- Department Public Health and Primary Care, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden University and Leyden Academy on Vitality and Ageing, Rijnsburgerweg 10, 2333 AA Leiden, the Netherlands.
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Stevens AJ, Boukari Y, English S, Kadir A, Kumar BN, Devakumar D. Discriminatory, racist and xenophobic policies and practice against child refugees, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants in European health systems. THE LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH. EUROPE 2024; 41:100834. [PMID: 39119094 PMCID: PMC11306214 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Child refugees, asylum seekers and undocumented migrants who have been forcibly displaced from their countries of origin have heightened health needs as a consequence of their migration experiences. Host countries have a duty to respond to these needs, yet across Europe we are seeing a rise in potentially harmful discriminative, hostile and restrictive migration policies and practices. Research exploring the role racism, xenophobia and discrimination in European health systems may play in child migrant health inequities is lacking. This Personal View seeks to highlight this knowledge gap and stimulate discourse on how discrimination in health information systems, data sharing practices, national health policy, healthcare entitlements, service access, quality of care, and healthcare workers attitudes and behaviours may infringe upon the rights of, and impact the health of child refugees, asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants. It calls for action to prevent and mitigate against potentially harmful policies and practices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yamina Boukari
- Institute of Health Informatics, University College London, UK
| | - Sonora English
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ayesha Kadir
- Save the Children International, St Vincent House, London, UK
| | | | - Delan Devakumar
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
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Sweterlitsch KM, Meyer R, Ohayon A, Levin G, Hamilton K, Truong M, Wright KN, Siedhoff MT. Clinical Trial Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Minimally Invasive Gynecologic Surgery. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2024; 31:414-422. [PMID: 38325584 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmig.2024.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE To study racial and ethnic disparities in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in minimally invasive gynecologic surgery (MIGS). DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Online review of all published MIGS RCTs in high-impact journals from 2012 to 2023. PATIENTS Journals included all first quartile obstetrics and gynecology journals, as well as The New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, The British Medical Journal, and The Journal of the American Medical Association. The National Institutes of Health's PubMed and the ClinicalTrials.gov websites were queried using the following search terms from the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology's certifying examination bulletin 2022 to obtain relevant trials: adenomyosis, adnexal surgery, abnormal uterine bleeding, cystectomy, endometriosis, fibroids, gynecology, hysterectomy, hysteroscopy, laparoscopy, leiomyoma, minimally invasive gynecology, myomectomy, ovarian cyst, and robotic surgery. INTERVENTIONS The US Census Bureau data were used to estimate the expected number of participants. We calculated the enrollment ratio (ER) of actual to expected participants for US trials with available race and ethnicity data. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS A total of 352 RCTs were identified. Of these, race and/or ethnicity data were available in 65 studies (18.5%). We analyzed the 46 studies that originated in the United States, with a total of 4645 participants. Of these RCTs, only 8 (17.4%) reported ethnicity in addition to race. When comparing published RCT data with expected proportions of participants, White participants were overrepresented (70.8% vs. 59.6%; ER, 1.66; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.52-1.81), as well as Black or African American participants (15.4% vs. 13.7%; ER, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.03-1.29). Hispanic (6.7% vs. 19.0%; ER, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.27-0.35), Asian (1.7% vs. 6.1%; ER, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.20-0.34), Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (0.1% vs. 0.3%; ER, 0.21; 95% CI, 0.06-0.74), and Indian or Alaska Native participants (0.2% vs. 1.3%; ER, 0.16; 95% CI, 0.08-0.32) were underrepresented. When comparing race/ethnicity proportions in the 20 states where the RCTs were conducted, Black or African American participants were underrepresented. CONCLUSION In MIGS RCTs conducted in the United States, White and Black or African American participants are overrepresented compared with other races, and ethnicity is characterized in fewer than one-fifth of trials. Efforts should be made to improve racial and ethnic recruitment equity and reporting in future MIGS RCTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Moran Sweterlitsch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California.
| | - Raanan Meyer
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California; The Dr. Pinchas Bornstein Talpiot Medical Leadership Program, Sheba Medical Center (Drs. Meyer and Ohayon), Tel Hashomer, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Aviran Ohayon
- The Dr. Pinchas Bornstein Talpiot Medical Leadership Program, Sheba Medical Center (Drs. Meyer and Ohayon), Tel Hashomer, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Gabriel Levin
- Lady Davis Institute for cancer research, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University (Dr. Levin), Quebec, Canada
| | - Kacey Hamilton
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California
| | - Mireille Truong
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California
| | - Kelly N Wright
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California
| | - Matthew T Siedhoff
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (Drs. Sweterlitsch, Meyer, Hamilton, Truong, Wright, and Siedhoff), Los Angeles, California
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Nkulu Kalengayi FK, Baroudi M, Hurtig AK. Prevalence of perceived discrimination, determinants and associations with self-rated general and sexual health, healthcare utilization and self-perceived integration: a cross-sectional survey of migrants in Sweden. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:699. [PMID: 38443834 PMCID: PMC10913465 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-18160-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sweden has welcomed migrants, but attitudes have shifted, becoming hostile due to populism and the growing number of migrants. This has left migrants feeling unwelcome and marginalized. Few studies have examined the extent to which migrants perceive discrimination, who, why, where and its relationships with different outcomes. This study has two aims: to assess the prevalence, reasons, and determinants of perceived discrimination among migrants (1) and its associations with self-rated health, sexual health, healthcare use, and integration (2). METHODS We analysed data from a 2018 survey on migrants' sexual and reproductive health and rights. The survey included 1740 migrants aged 16 or older. We used descriptive and log-binomial regression analyses to estimate prevalence, crude and adjusted prevalence ratios (APR) with 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS About 36% of participants perceived discrimination in Sweden, with ethnic origin (62%) and religion (35%) as main reasons. Perceived discrimination occurred in public spaces (47%), schools (33%), internet (20%), work (19%), public services (18%), residential areas (16%), and healthcare settings (10%). Migrant men (APR: 1.26, CI:1.07-1.49), born in Middle East and North Africa (APR: 1.57, CI:1.26-1.95) and South Asia (APR: 1.61, CI:1.27-2.04) regions, with more than 12 years of education (APR: 1.33, CI:1.10-1.60), a non-heterosexual orientation (APR: 1.21, CI: 1.02-1.43), a non-Christian religion (APR: 1.41, CI: 1.10-1.80), economic stress (APR:1.67, CI: 1.44-1.93) or Swedish language skills (APR: 1.24, CI:1.07-1.43) perceived discrimination more than their counterparts. In contrast, the oldest participants (46 years or more) perceived less discrimination (APR:0.55, CI: 0.37-0.80) than the youngest ones (16-25 years). Moreover, perceived discrimination was associated with poor self-rated general (APR:1.72, CI: 1.45-2.04) and sexual health (APR:1.40, CI:1.2-1.64), integration (APR:1.25, CI:1.14-1.37), and healthcare access (APR: 1.48, 1.16-1.89). CONCLUSIONS This study shows that migrants in Sweden face widespread perceived discrimination based on ethnicity and religion. This can affect their health, healthcare use, and social integration. The study calls for policies and interventions that tackle systemic perceived discrimination, foster inclusion, and guarantee equal opportunities in accessing healthcare and resources for migrants. It also urges support for vulnerable groups who perceive more discrimination, such as migrants from certain regions or under economic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mazen Baroudi
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, SE-901 87, Sweden
| | - Anna-Karin Hurtig
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Umeå, SE-901 87, Sweden
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von dem Knesebeck O, Klein J. Perceived discrimination in health care in Germany- results of a population survey. Int J Equity Health 2024; 23:39. [PMID: 38409013 PMCID: PMC10898096 DOI: 10.1186/s12939-024-02132-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has consistently been shown that perceived discrimination is associated with adverse health outcomes. Despite this uncontested relevance, there is a lack of research on the experiences of discrimination in health care. Therefore, the following research questions were addressed: (1) How often do people in Germany report having been discriminated in health care due to different reasons? (2) Which socio-demographic groups are most afflicted by perceived discrimination in health care? METHODS Analyses are based on a cross-sectional online survey conducted in Germany. An adult population sample was randomly drawn from a panel which was recruited offline (N = 2,201). Respondents were asked whether they have ever been discriminated in health care due to the following reasons: age, sex/gender, racism (i.e. migration history, religion, language problems, colour of skin), health issues or disability (i.e. overweight, mental illness/addiction, disability), socio-economic status (SES, i.e. income, education, occupation). RESULTS 26.6% of the respondents reported discrimination experiences. Perceived discrimination due to health issues or disability was most frequent (15%), followed by age (9%) and SES (8.9%). Discrimination due to racism and sex/gender was less frequently reported (4.1% and 2.5%). Younger age groups, women, and 2nd generation migrants as well as respondents with low income and low education were more likely to report any kind of discrimination in health care. Two groups were found to be at special risk for reporting discrimination in health care across different reasons: women and younger age groups. Discrimination due to racism was more prevalent among respondents who have immigrated themselves than those who were born in Germany but whose parents have immigrated. Discrimination due to SES was significantly associated with (low) income but not with education. CONCLUSIONS More than a quarter of the adult population in Germany reported experiences of discrimination in health care. Such experiences were more frequent among lower SES groups, migrants, women, and younger people. Results underline the necessity of interventions to reduce the magnitude and consequences of discrimination in health care. Future studies should apply an intersectional approach to consider interactions between social inequality indicators regarding discrimination and to identify risk groups that are potentially afflicted by multiple discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf von dem Knesebeck
- Institute of Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Jens Klein
- Institute of Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
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Dadras O, Diaz E. Perceived discrimination and its association with self-rated health, chronic pain, mental health, and utilization of health services among Syrian refugees in Norway: a cross-sectional study. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1264230. [PMID: 38406500 PMCID: PMC10884245 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1264230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Background There is a scarcity of research on discriminatory experiences and their association with health outcomes among Syrian Refugees in Norway. Thus, this study aims to examine the relationship between perceived discrimination, self-rated health (SRH), chronic pain, poor mental health, and healthcare utilization among Syrian refugees resettled in Norway. Methods Cross-sectional data from the Integration for Health project were analyzed, including 154 Syrian refugees who resettled in Norway in 2018-19. Perceived discrimination, SRH, chronic pain, psychological distress, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and healthcare visits were assessed. Statistical analyses, including Poisson regression and multinomial logistic regression, were conducted. The significant statistical level was set at 0.05. Results Approximately 30% of participants reported experiencing discrimination, with no significant associations between sociodemographic factors and perceived discrimination. Perceived discrimination was significantly associated with psychological distress (adjusted PR: 2.07, 95%CI: 1.21-3.55), post-traumatic stress symptoms (adjusted PR: 11.54, 95%CI: 1.25-106.16), and 4 or more psychologist visits (adjusted OR: 12.60, 95%CI: 1.72-92.16). However, no significant associations were found between perceived discrimination and SRH; pain symptoms, or general healthcare utilization. Conclusion Experienced discrimination is highly prevalent and seems to be associated with mental health outcomes, but not clearly with SRH, pain, or general healthcare visits among Syrian refugees living in Norway. Efforts should focus on reducing discrimination, promoting social inclusion, and improving access to mental health services for refugees. Public awareness campaigns, anti-discrimination policies, and cultural training for healthcare professionals are recommended to address these issues and improve the well-being of Syrian refugees in Norway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Dadras
- Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Addiction Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Esperanza Diaz
- Department of Addiction Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
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Daratsianou M, Fradelos EC, Spyridakis MS, Prezerakos P, Tzavella F. Development and validation of a questionnaire to evaluate attitudes and beliefs of discrimination by nursing staff. POLSKI MERKURIUSZ LEKARSKI : ORGAN POLSKIEGO TOWARZYSTWA LEKARSKIEGO 2024; 52:304-318. [PMID: 39007469 DOI: 10.36740/merkur202403107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Aim: The purpose of this study is to report on the development and initial psychometric testing of a questionnaire to investigate nurses' discrimination attitudes and beliefs towards people of dif f erent ethnic origins. PATIENTS AND METHODS Materials and Methods: The initial stage involved the selection of the questions of the tool after a comprehensive evaluation of the relevant international literature and the tools used in previous related studies. The reliability (forward-backward translation) of the questions was assessed, along with the content, face, and structure. To conduct the study, which was carried out from 07/2021 to 01/2022 a sample consisting of 30 and 2,034 nurses and their assistants was used for the pilot and the fi nal research, respectively. RESULTS Results: Given that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) threshold value of 0.89 was achieved, the sample was considered sufficient and appropriate for factor analysis. A statistically signif i cant result (p<0.001) from Bartlett's test indicated a substantial connection between the questions and conf i rmed that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Twenty statements altogether, with seven possible answers ranging from "totally disagree" to "completely agree," were included in the questionnaire. For the questions, three distinct factors - communication, difficulties, and discrimination - were shown to account for 47.1% of the variability. Reliability analyzes showed satisfactory Cronbach alpha coefficient scores for all factors, ranging from 0.78 to 0.82. CONCLUSION Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that the questionnaire we developed is a legitimate and trustworthy instrument for evaluating professional nurses' discriminatory attitudes and beliefs toward individuals from various ethnic backgrounds. The questionnaire can be used to help design interventions to end discrimination, guarantee equitable access to healthcare services, and provide high-quality care for individuals from diverse backgrounds. It can also be used to identify the factors that inf l uence nurses' attitudes and perceptions toward these patient populations.
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Muggli Z, Mertens TE, Amado R, Vaz D, Loureiro H, Martins MRO. Patterns of healthcare use among children with immigrant and non-immigrant backgrounds in 2019 and 2020: evidence from the CRIAS cohort study in the metropolitan area of Lisbon, Portugal. BMC Public Health 2023; 23:2531. [PMID: 38110906 PMCID: PMC10726586 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-17402-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND International migrant families may face various barriers in the access and use of health services. Evidence on immigrant children's health care or prevention facilities' utilisation patterns is scarce in Portugal. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to compare health services use between immigrant and non-immigrant children in the Metropolitan Area of Lisbon in 2019-2020 with the aim of informing public policies towards equitable access to, and use of health services. METHODS The CRIAS (Health Trajectories of Immigrant Children) prospective cohort study enrolled 420 children (51.6% immigrant) born in 2015 and attending primary health care (PHC) services in 2019. We compared primary health care facilities and hospital paediatric emergency department (ED) utilisation patterns in the public National Health Service, together with reported private practitioners use, between immigrant and non-immigrant children in 2019 and 2020. The Pearson chi-squared test, Fisher-Freeman-Halton Exact test, two-proportion z-test and Mann‒Whitney U test were used to examine the differences between the two groups. RESULTS In 2019, no significant differences in PHC consultations attendance between the two groups were observed. However, first-generation immigrant children (children residing in Portugal born in a non-European Union country) accessed fewer routine health assessments compared to non-immigrant children (63.4% vs. 79.2%). When children were acutely ill, 136 parents, of whom 55.9% were parents of non-immigrant children, reported not attending PHC as the first point of contact. Among those, nearly four times more non-immigrant children sought healthcare in the private sector than immigrant children (p < 0.001). Throughout 2019, immigrant children used ED more often than non-immigrant children (53.5% vs. 40.4%, p = 0.010), as their parents reported difficulties in accessing PHC. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, fewer immigrant children accessed PHC compared to non-immigrant children (70% vs. 80%, p = 0.018). Both non-immigrant and immigrant children reduced ED use by 2.5 times, with a higher decrease among immigrant children (46% vs. 34%). In both 2019 and 2020, over 80% of immigrant and non-immigrant children used ED for conditions classified as having low clinical priority. CONCLUSION Beyond identifying health care use inequalities between immigrant and non-immigrant children, the study points to urgent needs for public policy and economic investments to strengthen PHC for all children rather than for some.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zélia Muggli
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Thierry E Mertens
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Regina Amado
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Dora Vaz
- Amadora Primary Care Health Centres Group, Regional Health Administration of Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Helena Loureiro
- Department of Paediatrics, Hospital Prof. Dr. Fernando Fonseca, Amadora, Portugal
| | - Maria Rosário O Martins
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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