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Esposito A, Leone L, De Simone A, Fusco G, Nastri F, Lombardi A. Catalytic Nanomaterials by Conjugation of an Artificial Heme-Peroxidase to Amyloid Fibrils. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:45371-45382. [PMID: 39140178 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c10449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
The self-assembly of proteins and peptides into fibrillar amyloid aggregates is a highly promising route to define the next generation of functional nanomaterials. Amyloid fibrils, traditionally associated with neurodegenerative diseases, offer exceptional conformational and chemical stability and mechanical properties, and resistance to degradation. Here, we report the development of catalytic amyloid nanomaterials through the conjugation of a miniaturized artificial peroxidase (FeMC6*a) to a self-assembling amyloidogenic peptide derived from human transthyretin, TTR(105-115), whose sequence is YTIAALLSPYS. Our synthetic approach relies on fast and selective click ligation upon proper modification of both the peptide and FeMC6*a, leading to TTRLys108@FeMC6*a. Mixing unmodified TTR(105-115) with TTRLys108@FeMC6*a allowed the generation of enzyme-loaded amyloid fibrils, namely, FeMC6*a@fibrils. Catalytic studies, performed in aqueous solution at nearly neutral pH, using ABTS as a model substrate and H2O2 as the oxidizing agent revealed that the enzyme retains its catalytic activity. Moreover, the activity was found to depend on the TTRLys108@FeMC6*a/unmodified TTR(105-115) peptide ratio. In particular, those with the 2:100 ratio showed the highest activity in terms of initial rates and substrate conversion among the screened nanoconjugates and compared to the freely diffusing enzyme. Finally, the newly developed nanomaterials were integrated into a flow system based on a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane filter. Within this flow-reactor, multiple reaction cycles were performed, showcasing the reusability and stability of the catalytic amyloids over extended periods, thus offering significantly improved characteristics compared to the isolated FeMC6*a in the application to a number of practical scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Esposito
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, via Cintia 21, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Linda Leone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, via Cintia 21, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Alfonso De Simone
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Giuliana Fusco
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Flavia Nastri
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, via Cintia 21, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Lombardi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, via Cintia 21, 80126 Naples, Italy
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2
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Heble AY, Chen CL. Access to Advanced Functional Materials through Postmodification of Biomimetic Assemblies via Click Chemistry. Biomacromolecules 2024; 25:1391-1407. [PMID: 38422548 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c01454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
The design, synthesis, and fabrication of functional nanomaterials with specific properties remain a long-standing goal for many scientific fields. The self-assembly of sequence-defined biomimetic synthetic polymers presents a fundamental strategy to explore the chemical space beyond biological systems to create advanced nanomaterials. Moreover, subsequent chemical modification of existing nanostructures is a unique approach for accessing increasingly complex nanostructures and introducing functionalities. Of these modifications, covalent conjugation chemistries, such as the click reactions, have been the cornerstone for chemists and materials scientists. Herein, we highlight some recent advances that have successfully employed click chemistries for the postmodification of assembled one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) nanostructures to achieve applications in molecular recognition, mineralization, and optoelectronics. Specifically, biomimetic nanomaterials assembled from sequence-defined macromolecules such as peptides and peptoids are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie Y Heble
- Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Chun-Long Chen
- Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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3
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Lendel C, Solin N. Protein nanofibrils and their use as building blocks of sustainable materials. RSC Adv 2021; 11:39188-39215. [PMID: 35492452 PMCID: PMC9044473 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra06878d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development towards a sustainable society requires a radical change of many of the materials we currently use. Besides the replacement of plastics, derived from petrochemical sources, with renewable alternatives, we will also need functional materials for applications in areas ranging from green energy and environmental remediation to smart foods. Proteins could, with their intriguing ability of self-assembly into various forms, play important roles in all these fields. To achieve that, the code for how to assemble hierarchically ordered structures similar to the protein materials found in nature must be cracked. During the last decade it has been demonstrated that amyloid-like protein nanofibrils (PNFs) could be a steppingstone for this task. PNFs are formed by self-assembly in water from a range of proteins, including plant resources and industrial side streams. The nanofibrils display distinct functional features and can be further assembled into larger structures. PNFs thus provide a framework for creating ordered, functional structures from the atomic level up to the macroscale. This review address how industrial scale protein resources could be transformed into PNFs and further assembled into materials with specific mechanical and functional properties. We describe what is required from a protein to form PNFs and how the structural properties at different length scales determine the material properties. We also discuss potential chemical routes to modify the properties of the fibrils and to assemble them into macroscopic structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christofer Lendel
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology Teknikringen 30 SE-100 44 Stockholm Sweden
| | - Niclas Solin
- Department of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, Electronic and Photonic Materials, Biomolecular and Organic Electronics, Linköping University Linköping 581 83 Sweden
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4
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Gelain F, Luo Z, Zhang S. Self-Assembling Peptide EAK16 and RADA16 Nanofiber Scaffold Hydrogel. Chem Rev 2020; 120:13434-13460. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Gelain
- Institute for Stem-cell Biology, Regenerative Medicine and Innovative Therapies, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo, 71013, Italy
- Center for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Piazza dell’Ospedale Maggiore, 3, Milan 20162, Italy
| | - Zhongli Luo
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Center, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Shuguang Zhang
- Laboratory of Molecular Architecture, Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139-4307, United States
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5
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López-Laguna H, Sánchez-García L, Serna N, Voltà-Durán E, Sánchez JM, Sánchez-Chardi A, Unzueta U, Łoś M, Villaverde A, Vázquez E. Engineering Protein Nanoparticles Out from Components of the Human Microbiome. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2001885. [PMID: 32578402 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202001885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale protein materials are highly convenient as vehicles for targeted drug delivery because of their structural and functional versatility. Selective binding to specific cell surface receptors and penetration into target cells require the use of targeting peptides. Such homing stretches should be incorporated to larger proteins that do not interact with body components, to prevent undesired drug release into nontarget organs. Because of their low interactivity with human body components and their tolerated immunogenicity, proteins derived from the human microbiome are appealing and fully biocompatible building blocks for the biofabrication of nonreactive, inert protein materials within the nanoscale. Several phage and phage-like bacterial proteins with natural structural roles are produced in Escherichia coli as polyhistidine-tagged recombinant proteins, looking for their organization as discrete, nanoscale particulate materials. While all of them self-assemble in a variety of sizes, the stability of the resulting constructs at 37 °C is found to be severely compromised. However, the fine adjustment of temperature and Zn2+ concentration allows the formation of robust nanomaterials, fully stable in complex media and under physiological conditions. Then, microbiome-derived proteins show promise for the regulatable construction of scaffold protein nanomaterials, which can be tailored and strengthened by simple physicochemical approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hèctor López-Laguna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Laura Sánchez-García
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Julieta M Sánchez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT) (CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), ICTA & Cátedra de Química Biológica, Departamento de Química, FCEFyN, UNC. Av. Velez Sarsfield 1611, Córdoba, X 5016GCA, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Sánchez-Chardi
- Servei de Microscòpia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques Sant Pau and Josep Carreras Research Institute, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, 08041, Spain
| | - Marcin Łoś
- Department of Bacterial Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza Street 59, Gdansk, 80-308, Poland
- Phage Consultants, Partyzantow Street 10/18, Gdansk, 80-254, Poland
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Madrid, 28029, Spain
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6
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Haddad R, Ferraro E, Halmans A, Smith‐Carpenter JE. Modifying the surface of peptide nanofibers utilizing a thiol‐thioester exchange. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ramiz Haddad
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department Fairfield University Fairfield CT USA
| | - Elizabeth Ferraro
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department Fairfield University Fairfield CT USA
| | - Ashley Halmans
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department Fairfield University Fairfield CT USA
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7
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Thota C, Berger AA, Elomaa L, Nie C, Böttcher C, Koksch B. Coassembly Generates Peptide Hydrogel with Wound Dressing Material Properties. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:8557-8563. [PMID: 32337417 PMCID: PMC7178367 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b04371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Multicomponent self-assembly of peptides is a powerful strategy to fabricate novel functional materials with synergetic properties that can be used for several nanobiotechnological applications. In the present study, we used a coassembly strategy to generate an injectable ultrashort bioactive peptide hydrogel formed by mixing a dipeptide hydrogelator with a macrophage attracting short chemotactic peptide ligand. Coassembly does not impede hydrogelation as shown by cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), scanning electron microscopy, and rheology. Biocompatibility was shown by cytotoxicity assays and confocal microscopy. The hydrogels release the entrapped skin antibiotic ciprofloxacin, among others, in a slow and continuous manner. Such bioinspired advanced functional materials can find applications as wound dressing materials to treat chronic wound conditions like diabetic foot ulcer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaitanya
Kumar Thota
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Allison A. Berger
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Elomaa
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Chaunxiong Nie
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Böttcher
- Research
Center for Electron Microscopy, Freie Universität
Berlin, Fabeckstrasse
36a, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Beate Koksch
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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8
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Assembly of histidine-rich protein materials controlled through divalent cations. Acta Biomater 2019; 83:257-264. [PMID: 30366134 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2018] [Revised: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructured protein materials show exciting biomedical applications, since both structure and function can be genetically programmed. In particular, self-assembling histidine-rich proteins benefit from functional plasticity that allows the generation of protein-only nanoparticles for cell targeted drug delivery. However, the rational development of constructs with improved functions is limited by a poor control of the oligomerization process. By exploring cross-interactions between histidine-tagged building blocks, we have identified a critical architectonic role of divalent cations. The obtained data instruct about how histidine-rich protein materials can be assembled, disassembled and reassembled within the nanoscale through the stoichiometric manipulation of divalent ions, in a biochemical approach to biomaterials design. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Divalent metal and non-metal cations such as Ni2+, Cu2+ Ca2+ and Zn2+ have been identified as unexpected molecular tools to control the assembling, disassembling and reassembling of histidine-rich protein materials at the nanoscale. Their stoichiometric manipulation allows generating defined protein-protein cross-molecular contacts between building blocks, for a powerful nano-biochemical manipulation of the material's architecture.
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9
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Al-Halifa S, Babych M, Zottig X, Archambault D, Bourgault S. Amyloid self-assembling peptides: Potential applications in nanovaccine engineering and biosensing. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Soultan Al-Halifa
- Department of Chemistry; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montreal, QC Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO; Québec QC Canada
| | - Margaryta Babych
- Department of Chemistry; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montreal, QC Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO; Québec QC Canada
| | - Ximena Zottig
- Department of Chemistry; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montreal, QC Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO; Québec QC Canada
| | - Denis Archambault
- Department of Biological Sciences; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montreal, QC Canada
- Swine and Poultry Infectious Diseases Research Centre, CRIPA; QC Canada
| | - Steve Bourgault
- Department of Chemistry; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montreal, QC Canada
- Quebec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering and Applications, PROTEO; Québec QC Canada
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10
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Sánchez JM, Sánchez-García L, Pesarrodona M, Serna N, Sánchez-Chardi A, Unzueta U, Mangues R, Vázquez E, Villaverde A. Conformational Conversion during Controlled Oligomerization into Nonamylogenic Protein Nanoparticles. Biomacromolecules 2018; 19:3788-3797. [PMID: 30052033 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.8b00924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Protein materials are rapidly gaining interest in materials sciences and nanomedicine because of their intrinsic biocompatibility and full biodegradability. The controlled construction of supramolecular entities relies on the controlled oligomerization of individual polypeptides, achievable through different strategies. Because of the potential toxicity of amyloids, those based on alternative molecular organizations are particularly appealing, but the structural bases on nonamylogenic oligomerization remain poorly studied. We have applied spectrofluorimetry and spectropolarimetry to identify the conformational conversion during the oligomerization of His-tagged cationic stretches into regular nanoparticles ranging around 11 nm, useful for tumor-targeted drug delivery. We demonstrate that the novel conformation acquired by the proteins, as building blocks of these supramolecular assemblies, shows different extents of compactness and results in a beta structure enrichment that enhances their structural stability. The conformational profiling presented here offers clear clues for understanding and tailoring the process of nanoparticle formation through the use of cationic and histidine rich stretches in the context of protein materials usable in advanced nanomedical strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieta M Sánchez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, ICTA and Departamento de Química, Cátedra de Química Biológica, Córdoba, Argentina, CONICET, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT), Córdoba, Argentina , Av. Velez Sarsfield 1611 , X5016GCA Córdoba , Argentina
| | - Laura Sánchez-García
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Mireia Pesarrodona
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
| | | | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau) and Josep Carreras Research Institute, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau , 08025 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau) and Josep Carreras Research Institute, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau , 08025 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia , Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain.,CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN) , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
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