Supramolecular peptide nano-assemblies for cancer diagnosis and therapy: from molecular design to material synthesis and function-specific applications

Microarray Chip-Based High-Throughput Screening of Neurofilament Light Chain Self-Assembling Peptide for Noninvasive Monitoring of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) starts decades before cognitive symptoms develop. Easily accessible and cost-effective biomarkers that accurately reflect AD pathology are essential for both monitoring and therapeutics of AD. Neurofilament light chain (NfL) levels in blood and cerebrospinal fluid are increased in AD more than a decade before the expected onset, thus providing one of the most promising blood biomarkers for monitoring of AD. The clinical practice of employing single-molecule array (Simoa) technology for routine use in patient care is limited by the high costs. Herein, we developed a microarray chip-based high-throughput screening method and screened an attractive self-assembling peptide targeting NfL. Through directly "imprinting" and further analyzing the sequences, morphology, and affinity of the identified self-assembling peptides, the Pep-NfL peptide nanosheet with high binding affinity toward NfL (KD = 1.39 × 10-9 mol/L), high specificity, and low cost was characterized. The superior binding ability of Pep-NfL was confirmed in AD mouse models and cell lines. In the clinical setting, the Pep-NfL peptide nanosheets hold great potential for discriminating between patients with AD (P < 0.001, n = 37), mild cognitive impairment (P < 0.05, n = 26), and control groups (n = 30). This work provides a high-throughput, high-sensitivity, and economical system for noninvasive tracking of AD to monitor neurodegeneration at different stages of disease. The obtained Pep-NfL peptide nanosheet may be useful for assessing dynamic changes in plasma NfL concentrations to evaluate disease-modifying therapies as a surrogate end point of neurodegeneration in clinical trials.

Injectable Self-Healing Antibacterial Hydrogels with Tailored Functions by Loading Peptide Nanofiber-Biomimetic Silver Nanoparticles

Polymer hydrogels find extensive application in biomedicine, serving specific purposes such as drug delivery, biosensing, bioimaging, cancer therapy, tissue engineering, and others. In response to the growing threat of bacterial infections and the escalating resistance to conventional antibiotics, this research introduces a novel injectable, self-healing antimicrobial hydrogel comprising bioactive aldolized hyaluronic acid (AHA) and quaternized chitosan (QCS). This designed QCS/AHA hydrogel incorporates self-assembling peptide nanofibers (PNFs) and small-sized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) for tailored functionality. The resulting hybrid QCS/AHA/PNF/AgNPs hydrogel demonstrates impressive rheological characteristics, broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy, and high biocompatibility. Notably, its antimicrobial effectiveness against Escherichia coli and S. aureus surpasses 99.9%, underscoring its potential for treating infectious wounds. Moreover, the rheological analysis confirms its excellent shear-thinning and self-healing properties, enabling it to conform closely to irregular wound surfaces. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity assessment reveals its compatibility with human umbilical vein endothelial cells, exhibiting no significant adverse effects. The combined attributes of this bioactive QCS/AHA/PNF/AgNPs hydrogel position it as a promising candidate for antimicrobial applications and wound healing.

Small Peptide-Based Nanodelivery Systems for Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis

Developing nano-biomaterials with tunable topology, size, and surface characteristics has shown tremendously favorable benefits in various biologic and clinical applications. Among various nano-biomaterials, peptide-based drug delivery systems offer multiple merits over other synthetic systems due to their enhanced bio- and cytocompatibility and desirable biochemical and biophysical properties. Currently, around 100 peptide-based drugs are clinically available for numerous therapeutic purposes. In conjugation with chemotherapeutic moieties, peptides demonstrate a remarkable ability to reduce nonspecific drug effects by improving drug targetability at cancer sites. This review encompasses a wide-ranging role played by different peptide-based nanostructures in cancer theranostics. Section 1 introduces the rising concern about cancer as a disease and further describes peptide-based nanomaterials as biomedical agents to tackle the ailment. The subsequent section explores the mechanistic pathways behind the self-assembly of peptides to form hierarchically distinct assemblies. The crux of our review lies in an exhaustive exploration of the applications of various types of peptide-based nanostructures in cancer therapy and diagnosis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Peptide-based drug delivery systems possess superior biocompatibility, biochemical, and biophysical properties compared to other synthetic alternatives. The development of these nano-biomaterials with customizable topology, size, and surface characteristics have shown promising outcomes in biomedical contexts. Peptides in conjunction with chemotherapeutic agents exhibit the ability to enhance drug targetability at cancer sites, reducing nonspecific drug effects. This comprehensive review emphasizes the pivotal role of diverse peptide-based nanostructures as cancer theranostics, elucidating their potential in revolutionizing cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Assembling Ag2S quantum dots onto peptide nanosheet as a biomimetic two-dimensional nanoplatform for synergistic near infrared-II fluorescent imaging and photothermal therapy of tumor

Fluorescent bioimaging and photothermal therapy (PTT) techniques have potential significance in cancer diagnosis and treatment and have been widely applied in biomedical and practical clinical trials. This study proposes the molecular design and biofabrication of a two-dimensional (2D) nanoplatform, exhibiting promising prospects for synergistic bioimaging and PTT of tumors. First, biocompatible 2D peptide nanosheets (PNSs) were designed and prepared through peptide self-assembly. These served as a support matrix for assembling polyethylene glycol-modified Ag2S quantum dots (PEG-Ag2SQDs) to form a 2D nanoplatform (PNS/PEG-Ag2SQDs) with unique fluorescent and photothermal properties. The designed 2D nanoplatform not only showed improved photothermal efficacy and an elevated photothermal conversion efficiency of 52.46 %, but also demonstrated significant lethality against tumors in both in vitro and in vivo cases. Additionally, it displays excellent imaging effects in the near-infrared II region, making it suitable for synergistic fluorescent imaging-guided PTT of tumors. This study not only provides a facile approach for devising and synthesizing 2D peptide assemblies but also presents new biomimetic strategies to create functional 2D organic/inorganic nanoplatforms for biomedical applications.

Supramolecular Nanostructures for the Delivery of Peptides in Cancer Therapy

Supramolecular nanostructured based delivery systems are emerging as a meaningful approach in the treatment of cancer, offering controlled drug release and improved therapeutic efficacy. The self-assembled structures can be small molecules, polymers, peptides, or proteins, which can be used and functionalized to achieve tailored release and target specific cells, tissues, or organs. These structures can improve the solubility and stability of drugs having low aqueous solubility by encapsulating and protecting them from degradation. Alongside, peptides as natural biomolecules have gained increasing attention as potential candidates in cancer treatment because of their biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and high specificity toward tumor cells. The amino acid sequences in peptide molecules are tunable, efficiently controlling the morphology of peptide-based self-assembled nanosystems and offering flexibility to form supramolecular nanostructures (SNs). It is evident from the current literature that the supramolecular nanostructures based delivery of peptide for cancer treatment hold great promise for future cancer therapy, offering potential strategies for personalized medicine with improved patient outcomes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review focuses on fundamentals and various drug delivery mechanisms based on SNs. Different SN approaches and recent literature reviews on peptide delivery are also presented to the readers.

Design and synthesis of bioinspired nanomaterials for biomedical application

Natural materials and bioprocesses provide abundant inspirations for the design and synthesis of high-performance nanomaterials. In the past several decades, bioinspired nanomaterials have shown great potential in the application of biomedical fields, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and cancer therapy, and so on. In this review, three types of bioinspired strategies for biomedical nanomaterials, that is, inspired by the natural structures, biomolecules, and bioprocesses, are mainly introduced. We summarize and discuss the design concepts and synthesis approaches of various bioinspired nanomaterials along with their specific roles in biomedical applications. Additionally, we discuss the challenges for the development of bioinspired biomedical nanomaterials, such as mechanical failure in wet environment, limitation in scale-up fabrication, and lack of deep understanding of biological properties. It is expected that the development and clinical translation of bioinspired biomedical nanomaterials will be further promoted under the cooperation of interdisciplinary subjects in future. This article is categorized under: Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanomaterials and Implants Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Advances in screening, synthesis, modification, and biomedical applications of peptides and peptide aptamers

Peptides and peptide aptamers have emerged as promising molecules for a wide range of biomedical applications due to their unique properties and versatile functionalities. The screening strategies for identifying peptides and peptide aptamers with desired properties are discussed, including high-throughput screening, display screening technology, and in silico design approaches. The synthesis methods for the efficient production of peptides and peptide aptamers, such as solid-phase peptide synthesis and biosynthesis technology, are described, along with their advantages and limitations. Moreover, various modification techniques are explored to enhance the stability, specificity, and pharmacokinetic properties of peptides and peptide aptamers. This includes chemical modifications, enzymatic modifications, biomodifications, genetic engineering modifications, and physical modifications. Furthermore, the review highlights the diverse biomedical applications of peptides and peptide aptamers, including targeted drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutic. This review provides valuable insights into the advancements in screening, synthesis, modification, and biomedical applications of peptides and peptide aptamers. A comprehensive understanding of these aspects will aid researchers in the development of novel peptide-based therapeutics and diagnostic tools for various biomedical challenges.

Streamlined construction of robust heteroprotein complexes by self-induced in-cell disulfide pairing

Biomolecules and their functional subdomains are essential building blocks in the creation of multifunctional nanocomplexes. Methyl-binding domain protein 2 (MBD2) and p66α stand out as small α-helical motifs with an ability to self-assemble into a heterodimeric coiled-coil, making them promising building units. Yet, their practical use is hindered by rapid dissociation upon dilution. In this study, novel fusion tags, MBD2 and p66α variants, were developed to covalently link during co-expression in E. coli SHuffle. Through strategic placement of cysteine at each α-helix's terminus, intracellular crosslinking occurred with high specificity and yield, facilitated by preserved α-helical interactions. This instant disulfide bonding in the oxidative cytoplasm of E. coli SHuffle efficiently overcame the need for inefficient in vitro oxidation and protein extraction prone to creating non-specific adducts and suboptimal bioprocesses. In contrast to their wild-type counterparts, the GFP-mCherry protein complex cross-linked by the fusion tags maintained the heterodimeric state even under extensive dilution. The fusion tags, when combined with the E. coli SHuffle system, allowed for the streamlined co-expression of a stable protein complex through self-induced intracellular cysteine coupling. The approach demonstrated herein holds great promise for producing multifunctional and robust heteroprotein complexes.

Peptide-Hydrogel Nanocomposites for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, but conventional anticancer drugs have side effects, mainly due to their non-specific distribution in the body in both cancerous and healthy cells. To address this relevant issue and improve the efficiency of anticancer drugs, increasing attention is being devoted to hydrogel drug-delivery systems for different kinds of cancer treatment due to their high biocompatibility and stability, low side effects, and ease of modifications. To improve the therapeutic efficiency and provide multi-functionality, different types of nanoparticles (NPs) can be incorporated within the hydrogels to form smart hydrogel nanocomposites, benefiting the advantages of both counterparts and suitable for advanced anticancer applications. Despite many papers on non-peptide hydrogel nanocomposites, there is limited knowledge about peptide-based nanocomposites, specifically in anti-cancer drug delivery. The aim of this short but comprehensive review is, therefore, to focus attention on the synergies resulting from the combination of NPs with peptide-based hydrogels. This review, which includes a survey of recent advances in this kind of material, does not aim to be an exhaustive review of hydrogel technology, but it instead highlights recent noteworthy publications and discusses novel perspectives to provide valuable insights into the promising synergic combination of peptide hydrogels and NPs for the design of novel anticancer drug delivery systems.

A simple self-assembling system of melittin for hepatoma treatment

Background

Hepatoma is a serious public health concern. New attempts are urgently needed to solve this problem. Melittin, a host defense peptide derived from the venom of honeybees, has noteworthy hemolysis and non-specific cytotoxicity in clinical applications. Here, the self-assembly of melittin and vitamin E-succinic acid-(glutamate)12 (VG) was fabricated via noncovalent π-stacking and hydrogen bonding interactions using an environment-friendly method without “toxic” solvents.

Results

As expected, the designed self-assembly (denoted as M/VG nanoparticles) exhibits a uniform morphology with a particle size of approximately 60 nm and a zeta potential of approximately − 26.8 mV. Furthermore, added VG significantly decreased hemolytic activity, increased tumor-targeted effects, and accelerated apoptosis.

Conclusion

Our research provides a promising strategy for the development of natural self-assembled biological peptides for clinical application, particularly for transforming toxic peptides into safe therapeutic systems.

Graphical Abstract

Peptide Self-Assembled Nanocarriers for Cancer Drug Delivery

The design of novel cancer drug nanocarriers is critical in the framework of cancer therapeutics. Nanomaterials are gaining increased interest as cancer drug delivery systems. Self-assembling peptides constitute an emerging novel class of highly attractive nanomaterials with highly promising applications in drug delivery, as they can be used to facilitate drug release and/or stability while reducing side effects. Here, we provide a perspective on peptide self-assembled nanocarriers for cancer drug delivery and highlight the aspects of metal coordination, structure stabilization, and cyclization, as well as minimalism. We review particular challenges in nanomedicine design criteria and, finally, provide future perspectives on addressing a portion of the challenges via self-assembling peptide systems. We consider that the intrinsic advantages of such systems, along with the increasing progress in computational and experimental approaches for their study and design, could possibly lead to novel classes of single or multicomponent systems incorporating such materials for cancer drug delivery.

Advances in Peptide-Based Hydrogel for Tissue Engineering

The development of peptide-based materials has emerged as one of the most challenging aspects of biomaterials in recent years. It has been widely acknowledged that peptide-based materials can be used in a broad range of biomedical applications, particularly in tissue engineering. Among them, hydrogels have been attracting considerable interest in tissue engineering because they mimic tissue formation conditions by providing a three-dimensional environment and a high water content. It has been found that peptide-based hydrogels have received more attention due to mimicking proteins, particularly extracellular matrix proteins, as well as the wide variety of applications they are capable of serving. It is without a doubt that peptide-based hydrogels have become the leading biomaterials of today owing to their tunable mechanical stability, high water content, and high biocompatibility. Here, we discuss in detail various types of peptide-based materials, emphasizing peptide-based hydrogels, and then we examine in detail how hydrogels are formed, paying particular attention to the peptide structures that are incorporated into the final structure. Following that, we discuss the self-assembly and formation of hydrogels under various conditions, as well as the parameters to be considered as critical factors, which include pH, amino acid composi- tion within the sequence, and cross-linking techniques. Further, recent studies on the development of peptide-based hydrogels and their applications in tissue engineering are reviewed.

Relationship between pyroptosis-mediated inflammation and the pathogenesis of prostate disease

The largest solid organ of the male genitalia, the prostate gland, is comprised of a variety of cells such as prostate epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. Prostate diseases, especially prostate cancer and prostatitis, are often accompanied by acute/chronic inflammatory responses or even cell death. Pyroptosis, a cell death distinct from necrosis and apoptosis, which mediate inflammation may be closely associated with the development of prostate disease. Pyroptosis is characterized by inflammasome activation via pattern recognition receptors (PRR) upon recognition of external stimuli, which is manifested downstream by translocation of gasdermin (GSDM) protein to the membrane to form pores and release of inflammatory factors interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, a process that is Caspase-dependent. Over the past number of years, many studies have investigated the role of inflammation in prostate disease and have suggested that pyroptosis may be an important driver. Understanding the precise mechanism is of major consequence for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms, regulation, and cellular effects of pyroptosis briefly and then discuss the current pyroptosis studies in prostate disease research and the inspiration for us.

Design of short peptides and peptide amphiphiles as collagen mimics and an investigation of their interactions with collagen using molecular dynamics simulations and docking studies

Short peptide sequences and bolaamphiphiles derived from natural proteins are gaining importance due to their ability to form unique nanoscale architectures for a variety of biological applications. In this work, we have designed six short peptides (triplet or monomeric forms) and two peptide bolaamphiphiles that either incorporate the bioactive collagen motif (Gly-X-Y) or sequences where Gly, Pro, or hydroxyproline (Hyp) are replaced by Ala or His. For the bolaamphiphiles, a malate moiety was used as the aliphatic linker for connecting His with Hyp to create collagen mimics. Stability of the assemblies was assessed through molecular dynamics simulations and results indicated that (Pro-Ala-His)₃ and (Ala-His-Hyp)₃ formed the most stable structures, while the amphiphiles and the monomers showed some disintegration over the course of the 200 ns simulation, though most regained structural integrity and formed fibrillar structures, and micelles by the end of the simulation, likely due to the formation of more thermodynamically stable conformations. Multiple replica simulations (REMD) were also conducted where the sequences were simulated at different temperatures. Our results showed excellent convergence in most cases compared to constant temperature molecular dynamics simulation. Furthermore, molecular docking and MD simulations of the sequences bound to collagen triple helix structure revealed that several of the sequences had a high binding affinity and formed stable complexes, particularly (Pro-Ala-His)₃ and (Ala-His-Hyp)₃. Thus, we have designed new hybrid-peptide-based sequences which may be developed for potential applications as biomaterials for tissue engineering or drug delivery.

Nanomaterials: small particles show huge possibilities for cancer immunotherapy

With the economy's globalization and the population's aging, cancer has become the leading cause of death in most countries. While imposing a considerable burden on society, the high morbidity and mortality rates have continuously prompted researchers to develop new oncology treatment options. Anti-tumor regimens have evolved from early single surgical treatment to combined (or not) chemoradiotherapy and then to the current stage of tumor immunotherapy. Tumor immunotherapy has undoubtedly pulled some patients back from the death. However, this strategy of activating or boosting the body's immune system hardly benefits most patients. It is limited by low bioavailability, low response rate and severe side effects. Thankfully, the rapid development of nanotechnology has broken through the bottleneck problem of anti-tumor immunotherapy. Multifunctional nanomaterials can not only kill tumors by combining anti-tumor drugs but also can be designed to enhance the body's immunity and thus achieve a multi-treatment effect. It is worth noting that the variety of nanomaterials, their modifiability, and the diversity of combinations allow them to shine in antitumor immunotherapy. In this paper, several nanobiotics commonly used in tumor immunotherapy at this stage are discussed, and they activate or enhance the body's immunity with their unique advantages. In conclusion, we reviewed recent advances in tumor immunotherapy based on nanomaterials, such as biological cell membrane modification, self-assembly, mesoporous, metal and hydrogels, to explore new directions and strategies for tumor immunotherapy.

Peptide-Drug Conjugates: A New Hope for Cancer Management

Cancer remains the leading cause of death worldwide despite advances in treatment options for patients. As such, safe and effective therapeutics are required. Short peptides provide advantages to be used in cancer management due to their unique properties, amazing versatility, and progress in biotechnology to overcome peptide limitations. Several appealing peptide-based therapeutic strategies have been developed. Here, we provide an overview of peptide conjugates, the better equivalents of antibody-drug conjugates, as the next generation of drugs for required precise targeting, enhanced cellular permeability, improved drug selectivity, and reduced toxicity for the efficient treatment of cancers. We discuss the basic components of drug conjugates and their release action, including the release of cytotoxins from the linker. We also present peptide-drug conjugates under different stages of clinical development as well as regulatory and other challenges.

Advanced Peptide Nanomedicines for Bladder Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is still a global public health problem. Although remarkable success has been achieved in cancer diagnosis and treatment, the high recurrence and mortality rates remain severely threatening to human lives and health. In recent years, peptide nanomedicines with precise selectivity and high biocompatibility have attracted intense attention in biomedical applications. In particular, there has been a significant increase in the exploration of peptides and their derivatives for malignant tumor therapy and diagnosis. Herein, we review the applications of peptides and their derivatives in the diagnosis and treatment of bladder cancer, providing new insights for the design and development of novel peptide nanomedicines for the treatment of bladder cancer in the future.

Nanocarriers System for Vitamin D as Nutraceutical in Type 2 Diabetes: A Review

Incidence of diabetes are common among population around the world. Diabetes may lead to other complication and increasing morbidity and mortality. Many ways have been done to treat and prevent the development of diabetes. In addition of conventional pharmacotherapy, therapeutic therapy shown good opportunity to maintain and improve diabetic conditions. Vitamin D3 is known as nutraceutical and has good opportunity to develop the medication of type 2 diabetes. In another way, vitamin D3 naturally easy to damage by environmental condition. To overcome this weakness, researcher around the world have developed the method for protecting unstable compound as vitamin D3 with encapsulation. Liprotide is one of the various materials which can be used for encapsulation. Combination of lipid and protein molecules is expected to be a carrier and protector of vitamin D3 in gastrointestinal system. Here we review the research advances of liprotide as nanocarriers and vitamin D3 as nutraceuticals to discuss in applied on type 2 diabetes.

Syntheses of Polypeptides and Their Biomedical Application for Anti-Tumor Drug Delivery

Polypeptides have attracted considerable attention in recent decades due to their inherent biodegradability and biocompatibility. This mini-review focuses on various ways to synthesize polypeptides, as well as on their biomedical applications as anti-tumor drug carriers over the past five years. Various approaches to preparing polypeptides are summarized, including solid phase peptide synthesis, recombinant DNA techniques, and the polymerization of activated amino acid monomers. More details on the polymerization of specifically activated amino acid monomers, such as amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides (NCAs), amino acid N-thiocarboxyanhydrides (NTAs), and N-phenoxycarbonyl amino acids (NPCs), are introduced. Some stimuli-responsive polypeptide-based drug delivery systems that can undergo different transitions, including stability, surface, and size transition, to realize a better anti-tumor effect, are elaborated upon. Finally, the challenges and opportunities in this field are briefly discussed.

Recent research progress of biologically active peptides

With the rapid development of molecular biology and biochemical technology, great progress has been made in the study of peptides. Peptides are easy to digest and absorb, with lowering of blood pressure and cholesterol, improving immunity, regulating hormones, antibacterial, and antiviral effects. Peptides also have physiological regulation and biological metabolism functions with applications in the fields of feed production and biomedical research. In the future, the research focus of bioactive peptides will focus on their efficient preparation and application. This article introduces a comprehensive review of the types, synthesis, functionalization, and bio-related applications of bioactive peptides. For this aim, we introduced in detail various biopeptides and then presented the production methods of bioactive peptides, such as enzymatic synthesis, microbial fermentation, chemical synthesis, and others. The applications of bioactive peptides for anticancers, immune therapy, antibacterial, and other applications have been introduced and discussed. And discussed the development prospects of biologically active peptides.

Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery: An Overview with Emphasis on Vitamin D and K Transportation

Mounting evidence shows that supplementation with vitamin D and K or their analogs induces beneficial effects in various diseases, e.g., osteoarticular, cardiovascular, or carcinogenesis. The use of drugs delivery systems via organic and inorganic nanocarriers increases the bioavailability of vitamins and analogs, enhancing their cellular delivery and effects. The nanotechnology-based dietary supplements and drugs produced by the food and pharmaceutical industries overcome the issues associated with vitamin administration, such as stability, absorption or low bioavailability. Consequently, there is a continuous interest in optimizing the carriers' systems in order to make them more efficient and specific for the targeted tissue. In this pioneer review, we try to circumscribe the most relevant aspects related to nanocarriers for drug delivery, compare different types of nanoparticles for vitamin D and K transportation, and critically address their benefits and disadvantages.

The Most Recent Discoveries in Heterocyclic Nanoformulations for Targeted Anticancer Therapy

Every day, new cases of cancer patients whose recovery is delayed by multidrug resistance and chemotherapy side effects are identified, which severely limit treatment options. One of the most recent advances in nanotechnology is the effective usage of nanotechnology as drug carriers for cancer therapy. As a consequence, heterocyclic nanocarriers were put into practice to see whether they could have a better cure with positive results. The potential of a therapeutic agent to meet its desired goal is vital to its success in treating any disease. Heterocyclic moieties are molecules that have a wide variety of chemically therapeutic functions as well as a significant biological activity profile. Heterocyclic nano formulations play an important role in cell physiology and as possible arbitrators for typical biological reactions, making them valuable in cancer research. As a result, experts are working with heterocyclic nanoformulations to discover alternative approaches to treat cancer. Due to their unique physicochemical properties, heterocyclic compounds are real cornerstones in medicinal chemistry and promising compounds for the future drug delivery system. This review briefly explores the therapeutic relevance of heterocyclic compounds in cancer treatment, the various nanoformulations, and actively describes heterocyclic magnetic nano catalysts and heterocyclic moiety, as well as their mode of action, which have favorable anti - cancer effects.

Peptide-Derived Biosensors and Their Applications in Tumor Immunology-Related Detection

Small-molecular targeting peptides possess features of biocompatibility, affinity, and specificity, which is widely applied in molecular recognition and detection. Moreover, peptides can be developed into highly ordered supramolecular assemblies with boosting binding affinities, diverse functions, and enhanced stabilities suitable for biosensors construction. In this Review, we summarize recent progress of peptide-based biosensors for precise detection, especially on tumor-related analysis, as well as further provide a brief overview of the progress in tumor immune-related detection. Also, we are looking forward to the prospective future of peptide-based biosensors.

Self-assembly of amino acids toward functional biomaterials

Biomolecules, such as proteins and peptides, can be self-assembled. They are widely distributed, easy to obtain, and biocompatible. However, the self-assembly of proteins and peptides has disadvantages, such as difficulty in obtaining high quantities of materials, high cost, polydispersity, and purification limitations. The difficulties in using proteins and peptides as functional materials make it more complicate to arrange assembled nanostructures at both microscopic and macroscopic scales. Amino acids, as the smallest constituent of proteins and the smallest constituent in the bottom-up approach, are the smallest building blocks that can be self-assembled. The self-assembly of single amino acids has the advantages of low synthesis cost, simple modeling, excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability in vivo. In addition, amino acids can be assembled with other components to meet multiple scientific needs. However, using these simple building blocks to design attractive materials remains a challenge due to the simplicity of the amino acids. Most of the review articles about self-assembly focus on large molecules, such as peptides and proteins. The preparation of complicated materials by self-assembly of amino acids has not yet been evaluated. Therefore, it is of great significance to systematically summarize the literature of amino acid self-assembly. This article reviews the recent advances in amino acid self-assembly regarding amino acid self-assembly, functional amino acid self-assembly, amino acid coordination self-assembly, and amino acid regulatory functional molecule self-assembly.